• 


OUTLINES 


OP 


ANCIENT  HISTORY- 


FOR  THE  USE  OF 
HIGH   SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES 


BY         / 

WILLIAM   C.   MOREY,  PH.D.,  D.C.L. 
u 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE,  UNIVERSITY 

OF  ROCHESTER 

AUTHOR  OF  "OUTLINES  OF  ROMAN  HISTORY,"  "OUTLINES  OF  ROMAN  LAW,*' 
"OUTLINES  OF  GREEK  HISTORY,"  ETC. 


-. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1906,  BT 
WILLIAM  C.  MOliEY 

ANCIENT  HIBTOnY 

w.  P.  3 


\ 


PREFACE 


THIS  book  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  wants  of  those 
teachers  who  have  expressed  the  desire  for  a  text-book  of 
ancient  history  in  a  single  volume,  constructed  on  the  plan  of 
the  author's  "Outlines  of  Greek  History"  and  "Outlines  of 
Roman  History."  Such  a  text-book,  of  course,  requires  some- 
thing more  than  the  mere  bringing  together  of  separate  ac- 
counts of  the  different  countries  of  the  old  world.  It  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  indicate  the  historical  relation  of  these 
countries  to  one  another,  and  the  contributions  which  each  has 
made  to  the  progress  of  mankind.  The  significance  of  each 
country  should  be  estimated  by  the  permanent  elements  of 
its  civilization,  or  those  elements  which  have  survived  after  the 
nation  has  passed  away.  The  purpose  of  this  book  is,  there- 
fore, not  simply  to  describe  the  growth  of  separate  countries, 
but  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  the  continuity  of  ancient  his- 
tory. The  subject-matter  contained  in  the  author's  previous 
volumes  has  been  used  so  far  as  it  is  available  for  this  purpose. 

The  usual  division  of  ancient  history  into  Oriental,  Greek, 
and  Roman,  has  been  followed  not  only  as  the  most  convenient 
arrangement,  but  as  affording  the  means  to  illustrate  in  a  sat- 
isfactory way  the  progressive  stages  in  the  growth  of  ancient 
civilization.  The  Oriental  countries  are  described  to  show  the 
beginnings  of  man's  industrial  life  and  the  initial  stages  in  the 
development  of  government,  literature,  art,  science,  and  re- 
ligion. The  Greek  world  is  viewed  as  the  historical  field  espe- 
cially distinguished  for  the  growth  of  political  liberty  and  the 
development  of  a  high  intellectual  and  aesthetic  culture.  In 
describing  the  Roman  world,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to 
keep  clearly  in  view  that  which  has  given  to  Rome  its  distinct- 
ive place  in  the  world's  history — the  genius  for  organization, 


239205 


PREFACE 


growth  of  an  imperial  dominion,  and  the  development  of  a 
universal  system  of  government  and  law. 

It  has  been  especially  the  desire  of  the  author  to  reduce  his- 
tory to  the  simplest  terms  consistent  with  the  importance  of 
the  subject-matter.  But  it  has  also  been  his  desire  to  develop 
in  the  pupil's  mind  a  scientific  spirit,  not  only  by  emphasizing 
the  continuity  of  history,  but  by  indicating  the  relation  of 
special  facts  to  general  movements,  and  the  relation  of 
these  general  movements  to  the  growth  of  the  national  charac- 
ter and  institutions,  as  well  as  the  relation  of  each  nation's 
career  to  the  general  progress  of  mankind.  Irrelevant  matter 
has  been  excluded ;  and  facts  have  been  selected  and  arranged 
with  reference  to  their  historical  significance.  The  at- 
tention of  the  teacher  is  called  to  the  "  Progressive  Maps," 
which  are  intended  to  indicate  in  outline  the  most  important 
changes  in  the  geographical  history  of  the  ancient  world. 
Each  chapter  is  followed  by  a  "  Synopsis  for  Review  "  which 
presents  at  a  glance  the  order  of  the  general  and  special 
topics  treated  in  the  text.  This  is  followed  by  a  list  of  "  Ref- 
erences for  Reading."  The  attempt  has  been  made  not  to 
collate  an  extensive  bibliography,  which  can  be  of  little  prac- 
tical value  to  the  ordinary  pupil,  but  rather  to  direct  atten- 
tion to  certain  chapters — with  their  exact  titles — in  books 
which  are  readily  accessible.  The  classified  list  of  books  in 
the  Appendix  will  give  to  the  teacher  and  advanced  student 
further  bibliographical  aid. 

W.  C.  M. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ROCHESTER, 
ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAOB 

I.     Introduction — General  Character  of  Ancient  History       .        7 

THE  ORIENTAL  WORLD 

II.  The  First  Empires— Early  Babylonia  and  Egypt              .  19 

III.  The  Syrian  States — Phoenicia  and  Judea          ...  41 

IV.  The  New  Semitic  Empires— Assyria  and  Later  Babylonia  51 
V.  The  Aryan  Empires — Media  and  Persia  ....  61 

THE  GREEK  WORLD 
PERIOD  I.     THE  BEGINNINGS  OP  GREECE  (-776  B.  c.) 

VI.     Greece,  its  People  and  Early  Legends      ....      75 
VII.     The  Earliest  Ages  of  Greece 87 

PERIOD  II.    DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  GREEK  CITY  STATES 
(776-500  B.  c.) 

VIII.     Political  Growth  and  Expansion  of  Greece       .        .        .     102 

IX.     The  Typical  City  States— Sparta  and  Athens  .        .     114 

X.     The  Beginnings  of  Hellenic  Culture         .        .        .        .129 

PERIOD  III.    THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY  ;  ITS  GROWTH 
AND  DECLINE  (500-359  B.  c.) 

XI.  The  Persian  Wars— Growing  Power  of  Athens  .  .143 

XII.  The  Athenian  Empire  ;  Age  of  Pericles  .        .  .  .160 

XIII.  The  Struggles  for  Supremacy  in  Greece  .        .  .  .178 

XIV.  The  Attic  Period  of  Hellenic  Culture       .        .  .  .197 

PERIOD  IV.     THE  UNION  OF  GREECE  AND  THE  ORIENT 
(359-146  B.  c ) 

XV.     Macedonia  and  the  Empire  of  Alexander         .        .         .     225 
XVI.     The  New  Graeco-Oriental,  or  Hellenistic,  Culture   .        .     245 

5 


6  CONTENTS 

THE  ROMAN  WORLD 

PERIOD  I.    BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  ROMAN  STATE 
(753-343  B.  c.) 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVII.     Italy  and  the  Traditional  Origin  of  Rome     .        .        .259 

XVIII.    The  Early  City  State— Regal  Rome        .        .        .        .271 

XIX.    The  Development  of  the  Republican  Constitution        .     286 

PERIOD  II.    THE  EXPANSION  OP  THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC 
(343-133  B.  c.) 

XX.  The  Consolidation  of  Italy 299 

XXI.  The  Struggles  with  Carthage  :  the  Punic  Wars    .         .     315 

XXII.  The  Conquest  of  the  Mediterranean  Lands    .        .        .332 

XXIII.  Rome  as  a  World  Power 344 

PERIOD  III.    TRANSITION  PROM  THE  REPUBLIC  TO  THE 
EMPIRE  (133-31  B.  c.) 

XXIV.     The  Revolution  under  the  Gracchi        .        .        .        .354 
XXV.     The  Leadership  of  Marius  and  Sulla     ....     364 
XXVI.     The  Growth  of  Imperialism— Pompey  and  Caesar         .     375 
XXVII.     The    Last    Struggle    for    the   Empire— Antony    and 

Octavius 393 

PERIOD  IV.    THE  ROMAN  WORLD  UNDER  THE  EMPIRE 
(31  B.  C.-395  A.  D.) 

XXVIII.  The  Empire  under  Augustus 407 

XXIX.  The  Development  of  the  Early  Empire         .        .        .419 

XXX.  The  Later  Empire  of  Diocletian  and  Constantino          .     455 

XXXI.  Distinctive  Features  of  the  Roman  Empire  .        .        .470 

PERIOD  V.    THE  DISSOLUTION  OP  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

(395-800  A.  D.) 

XXXII.     The  German  Occupation  of  the  West    .        .        .        .482 

XXXIII.  The  Roman  Empire  in  the  East 498 

XXXIV.  The  Growth  of  the  Carolingiau  Empire        .        .        .508 

APPENDIX— A  Classified  List  of  Books  on  Ancient  History    .        .    625 
INDEX  .       .       .'  •       .587 


ANCIENT    HISTORY 


CHAPTER    I 

INTRODUCTION— GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF  ANCIENT 
HISTORY 

I.     OF  HISTOKY  IN  GENERAL 

Meaning  of  History. — We  may  perhaps  define  history  in 
the  briefest  way  by  saying  that  it  is  the  record  of  human 
progress.  The  study  of  history  enables  us  to  see  how  the 
world  in  which  we  live  to-day  has  come  to  be  what  it  is.  By 
this  study  we  learn  that  the  ideas,  the  customs,  and  the  institu- 
tions which  we  possess  in  the  present,  have  grown  out  of  what 
men  already  possessed* in  the  past.  Hence  we  study  the  ages 
which  have  gone  before  us,  in  order  that  we  may  understand 
the  age  in  which  we  live.  It  has  been  said  that  "to  know 
what  man  is  we  must  know  what  man  has  been."  History, 
therefore,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word,  deals  with  the 
progress  of  mankind — the  successive  stages  of  human  develop- 
ment. We  must  not  think  that  it  is  chiefly  a  story  of  wars 
and  battles;  it  is  rather  a  record  of  the  steps  by  which  men 
have  advanced  from  barbarism  to  civilization — by  which  they 
have  been  raised  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  plane  of  existence. 

Sources  of  Historical  Knowledge. — As  we  begin  our  study 
of  history,  we  may  ask  the  question,  How  can  we  know  the 
past — how  can  we  find  out  anything  about  the  men  who  lived 
ages  ago?  We  may  perhaps  best  answer  this  question  by  first 

7 


8  INTRODUCTION 

asking  a  simpler  one.  How,  for  example,  do  we  know  any- 
thing about  our  own  ancestors,  whom  no  person  now  living 
has  ever  seen?  In  the  first  place,  we  may  have  heard  stories 
about  them,  which  have  been  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation.  In  the  next  place,  we  may  have  pictures  or  heir- 
looms or  other  relics  which  they  once  possessed  and  which  re- 
veal something  regarding  their  looks,  their  tastes,  and  their 
character.  Finally,  we  may  have  in  our  possession  letters  or 
other  documents  which  they  themselves  have  written,  or  which 
others  have  written  about  them.  By  such  means  we  are  able 
to  learn  something  about  the  persons  who  have  lived  in  the 
past  and  whom  we  have  never  seen.  It  is  in  fact  by  methods 
quite  similar  to  these  that  we  get  our  knowledge  of  the  past 
ages  of  mankind.  We  may  in  a  similar  way  group  the  sources 
of  our  historical  knowledge  as  follows: 

(1)  Oral  traditions,  or  stories,  myths,  folklore,  and  legends 
which  have  been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation. 
These  are  valuable  as  evidences  of  what  people  have  believed; 
although  we  cannot  place  much  reliance  upon  them  as  evidence 
of  what  has  really  happened. 

(2)  Material  remains,  or  relics  of  the  past,  such  as  stone 
and  metal    weapons  and  other  implements,  buildings,  sculp- 
tures, vases,  coins,  and  other  works  of  art  which  bear  the  im- 
press of  the  character  of  the  people  that  produced  them. 

(3)  Written  records,  such  as  inscriptions,  manuscripts,  and 
books,  written  either  by  those  living  at  the  time  of  the  events 
described,  or  by  those  living  at  a  later  period  but  having 
knowledge  of  such  events. 

Stages  of  Human  Progress. — From  the  study  of  such  sources 
it  has  been  found  that  mankind  has  passed  through  various 
>  of  development — from  savory  to  barbarism,  and  from 
barbarism  to  civilization.  Our  knowledge  of  tin-  ejirliesl  sl.-ige 
of  himuin  progress  is  derived  somewh:if  from  I  nidi!  ions,  hut 
more  largely  from  nuttem!  relies.  These  reveal  a  very  prim- 
itive condition,  in  which  men  evidently  lived  in  caves  or  in  the 


GENERAL   CHARACTER    OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY          9 

shelter  of  rocks  and  trees;  in  which  they  obtained  their  food 
by  hunting  and  fishing,  and  made  their  implements  from 
rough  or  polished  stone.  This  primitive  stage  has  been  called 
the  Age  of  Savagery,  or  the  Age  of  Stone. 

The  discovery  and  use  of  the  metals — such  as  copper,  tin, 
silver,  gold,  and  iron — mark  a  higher  stage  of  progress.  Now 
men  began  to  show  greater  mechanical  skill,  to  manufacture 
many  new  articles,  both  for  use  and  for  ornament,  which  added 
to  their  comfort  and  happiness.  They  began  to  live  in  artifi- 
cial dwellings,  such  as  tents  and  hovels  of  wood  or  clay,  and 
to  obtain  their  living  by  the  domestication  of  animals  and  the 


EARLY  STONE  IMPLEMENTS 

cultivation  of  the  soil.  This  stage  has  been  called  the  Age  of 
Barbarism,  or  the  Age  of  Metals — including  the  Bronze  Age 
and  the  Iron  Age. 

The  use  of  a  well-defined  written  language  may  be  said  to 
mark  the  dawn  of  civilization.  From  this  time  men  have 
gradually  advanced  in  industry  and  commerce,  in  the  arts  and 
sciences,  in  language  and  literature,  in  government  and  laws, 
and  in  all  those  things  which  belong  to  the  higher  physical, 
intellectual,  and  social  life. 

x-  Divisions  of  General  History. — In  studying  the  facts  and 
i  movements  of  history,  it  is  customary  to  arrange  them  in  cer- 


PROGRESSIVE 


10 


GENERAL   CHAK.U  TKIl    OF    ANCIENT    HISTORY        11 

tain  divisions  or  periods.  This  is  well  enough,  j£  we  do  not 
suppose  that  there  is  any  sharp  dividing  line  which  separates 
one  period  from  another.  In  spite  of  revolutions  and  the  rise 
and  fall  of  nations,  the  course  of  history  has  been  continuous. 
The  "  periods  "  of  history  are  not  separated  by  gaps  or  breaks, 
but  rather  are  successive  phases  of  development  merging  grad- 
ually one  into  another.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  we  may  first 
arrange  the  general  history  of  the  world  into  two  great  divi- 
sions— ancient  and  modern.  Ancient  history  begins  with  the 
dawn  of  civilization,  and  traces  the  progress  of  mankind  among 
those  nations  which  have  now  ceased  to  exist — or  at  least  have 
ceased  to  contribute  anything  to  the  world's  progress.  ,  Modern 
history,  on  the  other  hand,  deals  with  the  origin  and  growth 
of  those  nations  which  still  exist  and  are  still  working  out 
the  problems  of  a  higher  world  life.1 

In  making  this  division  between  ancient  and  modern  history 
we  must  remember  that  these  two  great  periods  of  history  are 
closely  related  to  each  other.  Indeed,  the  great  interest  which 
we  have  in  ancient  history  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  large  part 
of  our  present  ideas,  customs,  and  institutions  have  descended  / 
to  us  from  the  peoples  who  flourished  in  ancient  times. 

II.    THE  FIELD  OF  ANCIENT  HISTOEY 

Geography  and  History. — It  is  a  fact  familiar  to  us  all 
that  men  are  influenced  to  a  large  extent  by  their  surround- 
ings— that  is,  by  the  localities  in  which  they  are  placed.  One 
of  the  conditions,  therefore,  of  human  progress  is  a  favorable 
environment.  Hence  the  study  of  geography  is  closely  related 
to  the  study  of  history.  We  know,  for  example,  that  men  are 
greatly  affected  by  the  climate  in  which  they  live.  Too  mucli/ 

1  The  term  "mediaeval  history,"  or  the  "middle  ages,"  is  often  applied  to 
the  formative  period  of  modern  nations,  extending  from  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Roman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  or  from  the  estahlishment  of 
the  Empire  of  Charlemagne  in  the  eighth  century,  down  to  the  fifteenth  or 
the  sixteenth  century. 


12  INTRODUCTION 

heat,  or  tog  much  cold,  tends  to  weaken  or  benumb  their 
powers.  A  temperate  climate  is  most  favorable  to  progress. 
Moreover,  men  are  most  likely  to  advance  in  those  places 
where  they  can  obtain  the  best  means  of  living — where  the 
soil  is  most  fertile,  and  where  the  earth  furnishes  the  largest 
amount  of  natural  resources,  and  also  where  peoples  can  most 
easily  exchange  their  products  with  one  another  by  land  or  by 
water  routes. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  progress  of  man  may  be  obstructed 

by  unfavorable  surroundings.  A  barren  soil  tends  to  keep  men 

V       in  poverty  and  misery.    Mountain  barriers  often  hem  them  in 

j    and  narrow  their  lives.    And  so  in  the  early  periods  of  history, 

./    especially,  man  is  largely  the  creature  of  his  environment. 

£   But  with  the  growth  of  a  higher  civilization  he  may  rise  above 

nature,  and  become  to  a  certain  extent  its  master. 

The  Historical  Zone  of  the  Ancient  World. — It  is  in  the 
Old  World  that  we  find  the  first  traces  of  civilization;  and  the 
field  of  ancient  history  comprises  those  parts  of  Africa,  Asia, 
and  Europe  that  have  temperate  climates  and  are  drained  by 
great  rivers  or  border  upon  the  sea.  To  bring  more  clearly 
before  our  minds  the  geographical  limits  of  ancient  history, 
let  us  mark  out  on  the  map  that  strip  of  territory  which  was 
best  fitted  for  human  progress  and  upon  which  the  old  civiliza- 
tions flourished.  This  strip  we  may  call  "  the  historical  zone 
of  the  ancient  world  "  (see  colored  portions  of  the  map  on  page 
10).  Beginning  at  the  Yellow  Sea  on  the  coast  of  China,  let 
us  follow  along  the  line  of  the  Hoang  River,  then  westward 
along  the  mountain  chains  of  the  Himalayas,  the  Hindu-Rush, 
and  the  Cau'casus,  and  finally  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube 
and  the  Rhine  rivers  to  the  North  Sea — and  the  line  thus 
traced  will  mark  the  northern  boundary  of  this  historical  zone. 
Its  southern  boundaries  are,  in  general .  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and- Africa.  The 
lands  within  this  zone,  in  respect  to  climate  and  soil,  present 
the  conditions  most  favorable  for  human  development;  and 


GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY       13 

they  became  in  ancient  times  the  homes  of  civilized  peo- 
ples. These  peoples,  however,  were  not  equally  progressive, 
and  they  did  not  reach  the  civilized  stage  at  the  same  time. 

The  Centers  of  Ancient  Civilization. — This  strip  of  terri- 
tory, stretching  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic,  we  may  sep- 
arate into  different  areas,  which  formed  to  a  certain  extent 
distinct,  centers  of  civilization.  Farthest  to  the  east  is  China, 
drained  by  two  great  rivers,  the  Hoang  and  the  Yangtze.  Its 
remote  situation  and  the  barriers  on  the  west  formed  by  the 
spurs  of  the  Himalayas,  combined  to  make  this  land  the  most 
isolated  of  the  civilized  lands  of  the  Old  World.  To  the  west 
of  China  lies  India,  also  drained  by  two  great  rivers,  the  Indus 
and  the  Ganges,  which  rise  among  the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas 
and  flow  in  different  directions  to  the  sea.  These  two  coun- 
tries— China  and  India — stood  nearly  alone  in  ancient  times, 
separated  from  the  peoples  of  western  Asia  by  the  wide,  dry 
plateau  of  Iran',  and  hence  these  countries  did  not  exercise  a 
great  influence  upon  the  ancient  world. 

As  we  leave  the  Far  East  and  pass  to  the  West  we  come  to 
two  of  the  most  remarkable  valleys  of  the  world — that  formed 
by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers  and  that  formed  )by  the 
river  Nile — the  one  pouring  its  waters  into  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  other  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Both  of  these  val- 
leys were  gifted  with  a  rich  alluvial  soil,  which  favored  the 
early  development  of  industry  among  the  inhabitants.  These 
two  centers  were  at  first  separated  from  each  other  by  the  in- 
tervening desert  of  Arabia,  but  after  a  time  their  inhabitants 
were  brought  into  contact  by  way  of  Syria,  so  that  the  cur- 
rents of  their  history  often  flowed  together. 

But  the  most  important  center  of  ancient  civilization  was 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  This  body  of  water  formed  the 
world's  greatest  highway.  It  was  taken  possession  of  succes- 
sively by  the  Phoenicians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  and 
became  an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  a  wider 
world  commerce  and  a  higher  world  culture. 


14  INTRODUCTION 

III.     RACES  AND  PEOPLES  OF  THE  OLD  WORLD 

Race  Characteristics. — The  progress  of  mankind  has  been 
influenced  not  only  by  geographical  conditions;  it  has  also 
been  influenced  by  the  traits  and  qualities  which  peoples 
have  inherited  from  their  ancestors.  The  physical  and  men- 
tal peculiarities,  the  ideas  and  customs,  which  are  trans- 
mitted from  age  to  age,  have  contributed  much  to  human 
progress.  These  inherited  qualities  we  may  call  "race  char- 
acteristics." 

There  have  been  many  attempts  to  find  a  scientific  distinc- 
tion among  the  different  races  of  mankind.  They  have,  for 
example,  been  classified  according  to  color,  into  the  white  or 
Caucasian  race,  the  black  or  Negro  race,  and  the  yellow  or 
Mongolian  race.  They  have  also  been  classified  according  to 
the  shape  of  the  head,  the  texture  of  the  hair,  and  other  physi- 
cal features.  Science  has  attempted  in  this  way  to  discover  the 
pure,  or  original,  races  of  mankind.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  various  peoples  of  the  world  have  become  so  intermingled 
that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  are  the  pure,  or  original, 
races,  and  to  distinguish  them  from  the  mixed,  or  secondary, 
races.  History  deals  not  simply  with  the  original  races,  but 
with  the  secondary -races  as  well.  It  looks  upon  a  "race"  as 
any  people,  whether  pure  or  mixed,  having  the  same  inherited 
characteristics — a  common  language,  common  customs  and 
institutions,  which  are  transmitted  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration, and  which  furnish  the  basis  of  a  distinct  type  of 
civilization. 

Classification  by  Color  and  Language. — The  most  usual 
and  perhaps  convenient  way  of  classifying  the  various  peoples 
of  the  world  is  to  group  them  first  by  color.  Thus  we  have 
(1)  the  black  or  Negro  race,  (2.)  the  yellow  or  Mongolian  race, 
and  (3)  the  white  or  Caucasian  race.  The  black  nice,  which 
is  found  chiefly  in  Africa,  in  Ausinilm.  ami  in  ilir  nri«rlibor- 
ing  islands,  stands  lowest  in  the  scale  of  human  beings  and 


GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY       15 

has  made  no  real  contributions  to  the  civilization  of  the  world. 
Tlu'  yellow  or  Mongolian  race,  which  has  occupied  the  central 
and  eastern  parts  o*f  Asia,  has  made  some  advance  in  the  arts 
of  civilized  life.  But  it  early  became  stationary  and  its  con- 
trilmtions  to  human  progress  have  been  few.  Of  this  race  the 
most  important  in  ancient  times  were  the  Chinese.  The  most 
progressive  peoples  of  the  world  have  belonged  to  the  white  or 
Caucasian  race.  These  peoples  in  ancient  times  occupied  the 
most  favored  lands  of  the  Old  World — the  valleys  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Nile,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  Ancient  history  is,  for  the  most  part,  the  record  of  the 
progress  of  these  peoples. 

When  we  attempt  to  arrange  the  Caucasian  peoples  into 
distinct  groups,  we  find  it  difficult,  because  they  came  into  con- 
tact with  one  another  and  were  often  intermingled,  so  as  to 
form  mixed  or  secondary  races.  It  is,  therefore,  usual  to 
group  these  peoples,  not  according  to  their  physical  character- 
istics, but  according  to  their  language.  The  study  of  lan- 
guage, or  philology,  thus  becomes  an  aid  to  the  study  of  his- 
tory. Peoples  who  speak  the  same  language,  although  they 
may  be  "  mixed,"  are  closely  related  to  one  another  in  their 
culture  and  their  historical  development.  By  the  study  of 
their  different  languages,  we  are  able  to  group  the  white  peo- 
ples in  subdivisions  which  are  not  only  convenient  but  also 
useful  for  historical  purposes.  The  Caucasian  race  is  thus 
subdivided  into  the  Hamit'ic,  the  Semit'ic,  and  the  Ar'yan  or 
Indo-European  peoples — or  "races,"  as  they  are  sometimes 
called. 

The  Hamitic  Race. — In  early  times,  the  Ham'ites  probably 
occupied  all  the  northern  coasts  of  Africa.  But  it  was  only  in 
Egypt,  on  the  fertile  banks  of  the  Nile,  that  they  found  the 
conditions  most  favorable  to  their  development.  In  this  re- 
stricted habitat  they  put  to  the  highest  use  the  resources  of 
nature,  and  attained  to  a  high  place  among  the  nations  of 
antiquity. 


16  INTRODUCTION 

The  Semitic  Peoples. — The  original  home  of  the  Sem'ites 
was  probably  in  Arabia.  This  remarkable  race  furnished  some 
of  the  most  important  historical  peoples  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  Babylonians  and  the  Assyrians  settled  in  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley ;  and  the  Hebrews  and  the  Phoenicians  found 
a  home  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  From  the 
Phoenicians  sprang  the  Carthaginians,,  who  founded  a  com- 
mercial empire  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Africa.  In  later 
times,  the  Arabians  built  up  a  great  Mohammedan  empire, 
which  covered  the  western  part  of  Asia  and  the  northern  part  of 
Africa  and  encroached  upon  the  southern  countries  of  Europe. 

The  Aryan  or  Indo-European  Peoples. — The  people  that 
carried  ancient  civilization  to  its  highest  stage  were  the 
Aryans,  or  Indo-Europeans.  Where  was  the  original  home 
of  this  people  is  a  matter  of  doubt — perhaps  in  central  Asia, 
but  quite  as  likely  somewhere  in  Europe.  In  ancient  times 
they  spread  to  the  east  and  to  the  west  until  they  extended 
from  the  Ganges  Eiver  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  their 
progress  they  mingled  with  other  peoples  whom  they  con- 
quered and  absorbed.  But  wherever  they  went  they  preserved 
the  marks  of  their  common  language  and  of  their  common 
primitive  culture.  To  this  people  belong  the  Hindus  of  India, 
the  Medes  and  Persians  of  central  Asia,  and  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  of  southern  Europe.  The  Indo-European  peoples 
also  include  the  Slavs,  the  Germans,  and  the  Celts  of  northern 
and  western  Europe,  whose  history,  however,  is  not  so  im- 
portant in  the  ancient  period.1 

Phases  of  Ancient  Culture. — We  have  thus  pointed  out  the 
various  lands  in  the  ancient  world  most  favorable  to  progress, 
and  the  chief  races  and  peoples  which  occupied  these  lands. 
Now,  as  we  look  over  the  development  of  these  various  peoples, 
we  may  distinguish  three  great  types  or  phases  of  civilization, 

1  We  must  not  suppose  that  all  the  Indo-European,  or  Aryan-speaking, 
peoples  have  descended  from  the  same  stock — an  opinion  once  held,  but  now 
disproved  by  recent  Investigations.  It  must  be  kept  In  mind  thut  identity 
of  language  does  not  necessarily  involve  identity  of  race. 


GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY       17 

namely,  the  Oriental,  the  Greek,  and  the  Roman.1  By  study- 
ing these  phases  of  ancient  culture,  we  shall  see  the  successive 
steps  by  which  men  emerged  from  barbarism  and  entered 
upon  a  higher  physical  and  intellectual  existence. 

In  the  Oriental  world  we  shall  see  the  beginnings  of  civi- 
lized life — the  first  successful  efforts  of  man  to  subdue  the  earth 
and  to  utilize  the  resources  of  nature;  the  beginnings  of  sci- 
ence and  of  a  well-defined  written  language;  the  first  evidences 
of  architectural  skill  in  the  construction  of  great  buildings; 
and  the  first  marked  tendency  in  the  direction  of  great  em- 
pires and  of  centralized  governments. 

In  the  Greek  world  we  shall  see  a  finer  type  of  humanity: 
a  versatile  intellect,  expressed  in  exalted  works  of  philosophy 
and  literature;  a  refined  aesthetic  taste,  embodied  in  the  most 
beautiful  specimens  of  architecture  and  sculpture;  and  a  strong 
love  of  freedom,  shown  in  the  development  of  democratic 
institutions. 

In  the  Roman  world  we  shall  see  a  more  practical  genius 
and  a  more  vigorous  manhood;  a  great  capacity  for  military 
and  political  organization;  a  broad  sense  of  civil  justice,  ex- 
pressed in  an  enduring  system  of  law;  a  wide  cosmopolitan 
spirit,  capable  of  appropriating  the  ideas  of  other  peoples — in 
short,  a  civilization  which  expressed  the  highest  unity  and 
broadest  culture  of  the  ancient  world. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  OF  HISTORY  IN  GENERAL. — Meaning-  of  History. — Sources  of 
Historical  Knowledge. — Stages  of  Human  Progress. — Divisions  of 
General  History. 

II.  THE  FIELD  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY. — Geography  and  History. — 
The   Historical    Zone    of    the    Ancient   World.— The    Centers   of 
Ancient  Civilization. 

1  These  successive  phases  of  civilization  furnish  the  basis  of  our  divisions 
of  ancient  history.  Other  divisions,  however,  might  be  adopted.  For 
example,  since  the  earliest  civilization  was  developed  by  the  Oriental 
nations,  and  this  was  taken  up  by  the  classical  nations  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  whose  culture  was  afterward  transmitted  to  the  German  peoples,  we 
might  divide  ancient  history  into  the  Oriental,  classical,  and  Germanic 
periods. 


18  INTRODUCTION 

TIL  RACES  AND  PEOPLES  OF  THE  OLD  WORLD. — Race  Character- 
istics.— Classification  by  Color  and  Language. — The  Ham i tic 
Race. — The  Semitic  Peoples. — The  Aryan  or  Indo-European  Peo- 
ples.— Phases  of  Ancient  Culture. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Fisher,  pp.  1-16,  "Introduction"  (I).1 

Bourne,  Ch.  5,  "The  Value  of  History"  (3). 

Diesterweg,  Ch.  1,  "Meaning-  of  History";  Ch.  2,  "Uses  of  His- 
tory" (3). 

Ducoudray,  Ancient  Civilization,  Ch.  1,  "The  Beginnings  of  Civ- 
ilization" (1). 

Hoernes,  Sec.  3,  "Characteristics  of  Human  Culture"  (2). 

Tylor,  Anthropology,  Ch.  1,  "Man,  Ancient  and  Modern"  (2). 

Keary,  Ch.  5,  "The  Nations  of  the  Old  World"  (2). 

Taylor,  Ch.  1,  "The  Aryan  Controversy"  (2). 

Starr,  Ch.  3,  "Food-Getting"  (2). 

Joly,  Part  II.,  "Primitive  Civilization"  (2). 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Art.  "Geography"  (for  geographical 
ideas  of  the  ancients). 

Rawlinson,  Ancient  History,  pp.  24-35,  "The  Geography  of 
Asia"  (1). 

*The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE  ORIENTAL  WORLD 


CHAPTER    II 

THE    FIRST    EMPIRES— EARLY    BABYLONIA    AND    EGYPT 
I.     THE  EARLY  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE 

The  First  Centers  of  Civilization. — In  beginning  our  study 
of  the  Oriental  world,  we  may  ask,  In  what  part  of  the  East 
did  men  first  rise  from  barbarism  to  a  civilized  life — in  other 
words,  where  did  civilization  first  appear?  We  cannot  answer* 
this  question  with  certainty.  We  may  be  quite  sure,  however, 
that  it  was  either  in  Babylonia  in  the  lower  Euphrates  valley, 
or  in  Egypt  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  It  has  long  been  sup- 
posed that  Egypt  was  the  oldest  civilized  country.  But  the 
most  recent  excavations  have  brought  to  light  some  indications 
that  the  people  who  lived  in  the  Euphrates  valley  used  a  writ- 
ten language  and  reached  a  condition  which  might  be  called 
civilized,  even  before  these  results  were  attained  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. However  this  may  be,  these  two  valleys — that  of  the  Eu- 
phrates  and  that  of  the  Nile— formed  at  first  two  distinct  cen- 
ters of  civilization.  Separated  as  they  were  by  an  intervening 
desert,  the  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  peoples  took  the  first 
steps  in  the  direction  of  a  more  civilized  life,  each  unaided  by 
the  other.  For  a  long  period  of  time  they  were  isolated  from 
each  other.  It  was  only  when  they  had  each  broken  through 
their  early  boundaries  and  extended  their  conquests  along  the 

19 


EARLIEST 
BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE 

WITH  CAPITAL  AT  ACCAD 

TiincofSaricon  I. 
About  88OO  B.C. 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


100  200  800  400 


A^      M 


MEDITER  R A  NE A  X 

Siclo 
SEA  Ty 


Babylc 


First  Cati 
E    T 


EGYPTIAN  EMPIRE 

Time  of  Thuthmes  III. 
XVIIIth  Uynasty 
About  145OB.C. 

SCALE  OF  MILE* 

i«5  800  800  400 


EARLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT          21 

eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea — that  is,  in  Syria — 
that  their  civilizations  met  and  were  mingled  together.  The 
first  to  extend  their  conquests  to  this  middle  land  of  Syria  were 
the  Babylonians.  Whether  or  not  they  were  the  first  to  emerge 
from  barbarism,  the  Babylonians,  or  the  peoples  of  the  Tigris- 
p]uphrates  valley,  were  the  first  to  extend  their  culture  to  lands 
beyond  their  own,  and  to  obtain  importance  as  a  civilizing 
people. 

The  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley. — The  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
rivers,  rising  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  flow  southward 
and  pour  their  united  waters  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  val- 
ley formed  by  these  rivers  may  be  divided  into  two  parts — 
the  southern  or  the  lowlands,  and  the  northern  or  the  high- 
lands. The  southern  part,  which  has  received  the  name  of 
Babylonia,  has  its  chief  historical  center  at  Bab'ylon  on  the 
Euphrates.  Its  most  marked  features  are  its  soft  climate  and 
its  rich  alluvial  soil.  The  northern  part  of  the  valley,  called 
Assyria,  had  its  chief  center  first  at  Assur  on  the  Tigris,  and 
afterward  at  Nin'eveh  on  the  same  river.  Its  climate  was  more 
rugged  than  that  of  the  south;  and  its  land,  though  less  fertile, 
furnished  large  supplies  of  minerals  and  precious  stones. 

It  was  the  people  who  found  their  way  into  the  southern 
part,  or  the  lower  valley,  that  first  developed  a  civilized  state. 
It  is  probable  that  this  lower  valley  was  in  very  ancient  times 
settled  by  an  earlier,  non- Semitic  race — usually  known  as  the 
Acca'dians — who  laid  the  basis  of  the  Babylonian  culture.  But 
the  territory  became  at  last  the  home  of  a  Semitic  people,  who 
probably  came  from  Arabia,  who  conquered  and  absorbed  the 
earlier  peoples,  taking  up  their  customs  and  institutions,  and 
becoming  the  dominant  race.  It  is  this  mixed  people  that  we 
call  the  Babylonians.  The  date  of  the  earliest  occupation  of 
this  country  by  the  Semites  cannot  be  accurately  fixed;  but 
it  can  hardly  be  later  than  5000  B.  c. 

Not  many  years  ago  our  knowledge  of  this  ancient  people 
was  derived  chiefly  from  the  Greek  historian  Herod'otus  and 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 2 


22  THE    OKIK.XTAl.    WOULD  , 

the  Chaldae'an  priest  Bero'sus.  The  accounts  of  these  writers, 
so  far  as  the  earliest  history  was  concerned,  wi'iv  based  upon 
traditions,  which  were  of  course  not  very  trustworthy.  In  re- 
cent years,  however,  our  knowledge  has  been  greatly  increased 
and  made  more  definite  by  the  large  number  of  excavations 
made  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities.  The  remains  of  pal- 
aces and  temples  have  been  brought  to  light,  and  inscriptions 
have  been  deciphered  which  show  the  great  antiquity  of  this 
people,  and  reveal  much  regarding  their  history,  their  arts,  and 
their  institutions. 

The  Early  City  States:  Sargon  I.— The  first  light  that  falls 
upon  the  Euphrates  valley  reveals  the  existence  of  many  cities 
of  more  or  less  importance,  each  under  its  own  government 
and  ruled  By  its  own  king.1  At  a  very  early  day  the  rulers  of 
some  of  these  cities  sought  to  establish  something  like  an  impe- 
rial government,  by  bringing  other  cities  under  their  power.  So 
far  as  we  know  the  first  successful  attempt  to  create  an  empire 
was  made  by  Sargon  L.  king  of  Accad  (or  Agade),  who  flour- 
ished in  3800  B.  c. — the  first  authentic  date,  it  is  said,  in  the 
world's  history.  With  Accad  as  his  capital  Sargon  extended 
his  authority  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley  and. 
as  far  west  as  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Other  cities,  like  Ur  and 
Babylon,  afterward  vied  with  one  another  in  taking  the  lead. 
But  the  early  cities  of  Babylonia  finally  (about  2300  B.  c.) 
passed  under  the  foreign  dominion  of  the  E'lamites — a  people 
who  came  from  east  of  the  Tigris. 

Hammurabi  and  the  Old  Babylonian  Empire.2 — AliliouL-h 
the  earliest  empire  of  Babylonia  was  really  established  by  SMI-- 

1  A  few  of  these  ancient  cities  were  Slppar,  Accad,  Babylon,  Nippur, 
Tello  (ancient  Laerash),  and  Ur  (see  map,  p.  20). 

8  The  old  Babylonian  empire  is  sometimes  called  the  "ClinldM-Mu." 
because  it  arose  in  the  lower  valley.  near  tlie  home  of  the  Chalda>nns.  But 
it  Is  quite  certain  that  the  Chaldeans  (Kaldi)  did  not  appear  in  Babylonia 
until  nftcr  the  fall  of  the  old  empire,  and  during  the  time  of  Hie  Assyi-i.-ui 
ascendancy.  See  (Joodspeed,  History  of  the  Babylonians  Mini  Assyrians, 
pp.  isi.  'J11,  L>::<;,  :;r,i  ;  also  Philip  Smith,  Ancient  History  of  the  East, 
p.  iMii. 


EAKLY   BABYLONIA  AND    ECJYI'T  23 

gon  I.,  the  most  prosperous  period  of  what  is  usually  called 
the  "  Old  Babylonian  Empire  "  began  with  Hammura'bi,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  ancient  kings.  He  not  only  drove  out  the 
Elamites,  but  he  again  brought  the  whole  territory  under  a 
single  rule  (about  2250  B.  c.).  He  made  the  city  of  Babylon 
his  capital,  and  labored  for  the  welfare  of  his  people.  He  con- 
structed dikes  to  prevent  the  overflow  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
built  a  network  of  canals  to  irrigate  the  arid  lands.  The  most 
remarkable  monument  of  this  king  is  the  "  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi," which  has  been  but  recently  discovered,  and  is  re- 
garded as  the  oldest  code  of  laws  in  the  world.  During  this 
most  prosperous  period  of  its  history,  the  early  Babylonian  em- 
pire was  not  devoted  to  the  arts  of  war  so  much  as  to  the  arts 
of  peace.  The  people  were  more  active  in  subduing  nature 
than  in  conquering  their  neighbors;  and  hence  we  find  that 
they  made  great  progress  in  the  development  of  a  civilized 
life. 

The  Kassite  Conquest. — In  later  years  (about  1700  B.  c.) 
Babylonia  fell  under  the  foreign  rule  of  the  Kassites — a  bar- 
barous people  from  the  east  of  the  Tigris,  of  a  race  kindred 
to  the  Elamites.  During  the  long  period  in  which  Babylonia 
was  ruled  by  foreign  kings,  it  is  well  to  notice  that  the  civiliza- 
tion already  developed  was  not  destroyed.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Kassites  adopted  the  culture  which  they  found  in  the  Eu- 
phrates valley,  and  became  themselves  civilized.  They  took  up 
the  customs  of  the  Babylonians,  their  laws,  their  religion,  their 
science  and  arts,  and  preserved  them  for  future  generations- 
Babylonian  Industry  and  Art. — The  life  and  progress  of 
the  Babylonians  were  greatly  influenced  by  the  country  in 
which  they  lived.  Their  civilization  was  based  upon  the  char- 
acter of  their  soil,  which  was  made  fertile  by  the  waters  of  the 
Euphrates.  They  were  primarily  a  pastoral  and  agricultural 
people,  grazing  their  flocks  and  herds  upon  the  natural  pas- 
tures of  the  valley,  or  raising  by  artificial  means  the  grains  and 
fruits  necessary  for  food.  They  dug  canals  to  irrigate  the  out- 


24:  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

lying  fields.  In  the  absence  of  stone  and  timber  they  built 
their  houses  of  clay  which  became  hardened  in  the  sun.  They 
soon  learned  to  manufacture  bricks  burned  in  the  kiln,  from 
which  they  constructed  their  more  important  buildings.  The 
wool  shorn  from  their  flocks  they  wove  into  cloths  and  rugs. 
As  they  extended  their  territory  up  the  valley  they  obtained 
supplies  of  wood,  metals,  and  precious  stones, 
and  from  these  they  wrought  new  articles  for 
use  as  well  as  for  ornament.  There  thus  arose 
a  class  of  traders  and  merchants,  who  ex- 
changed the  native  products  of  the  lower  Eu- 
phrates  with  the  products  of  other  lands.  The 
Babylonians  developed  remarkable  skill  in  the 
working  of  clay  and  metals,  and  also  in  the  carving  of  precious 
stones — which  acquired  the  character  of  a  fine  art.  This  is 
seen  in  their  vases  of  alabaster,  of  terra-cotta,  and  of  silver, 
their  statuettes  of  copper  and  bronze,  and  especially  in  their 
fine  intaglio  work  cut  in  onyx,  jasper,  and  other  precious 
stones.  The  intaglio  work  was  often  cut  upon  cylinder  seals, 
which  revolved  upon  a  metallic  axis  and  were  used  to  authen- 
ticate legal  documents. 

Babylonian  Government  and  Laws. — The  government  of 
Babylonia  centered  about  the  king.  From  the  time  of  the  early 
city  kings  to  the  imperial  monarchy  of  Hammurabi  we  do  not 
find  that  the  people  had  any  share  in  the  government.  The 
king  was  the  source  of  all  authority.  He  was  supposed  to  de- 
rive his  authority  from  the  gods.  He  was  the  one  to  determine 
what  was  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the  people.  It  was  under 
his  direction  that  the  wars  were  carried  on,  the  public  works 
were  constructed,  the  lands  were  irrigated,  the  palaces  and  tem- 
ples were  built,  and  the  laws  were  administered. 

Th<*  character  of  the  Babylonian  laws  is  seen  not  only  in  the 
recently  discovered  code  of  Hammurabi,  which  we  have  referred 
to,  but  also  in  the  lcir;il  documents  inscribed  on  brick  tablets. 
These  show  the  rules  relating  to  marriage  and  divorce,  property 


EAKLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT 


25 


and  inheritance,  partnership  and  loans,  and  also  the  pen- 
alties for  theft,  assault,  housebreaking,  and  other  crimes. 
The  advanced  character  of  these  laws  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  nearly  all  business  transac- 
tions required  the  use  of  written  con- 
tracts. 

Babylonian  Writing  and  Litera- 
ture.— The  writing  employed  by  the 
Babylonians  was  peculiar  to  this  part 
of  the  Orient.  It  is  what  is  called 
"  cune'iform,"  because  expressed  in 
wedge-shaped  characters  (from  cuneus, 
a  wedge).  The  writing  took  this  shape 
because  the  only  writing  material  of 
the  lower  valley  was  the  clay  tablet, 
and  because  the  instrument  used  in 
writing  was  a  three-cornered  stylus, 
a  sort  of  gouge,  which  made  a 
wedge-shaped  mark  on  the  surface  of  the  moistened  clay.  The 
cuneiform  characters  were  probably  first  used  by  the  Accadi- 
ans;  but  they  were  employed  by  all  the  peoples  of  the  middle 
Orient:  not  only  by  the  Babylonians,  but  afterward  by  the 
Assyrians,  and  by  the  Medes  and  the  Persians. 

The  clay  tablets,  thus  inscribed  with  cuneiform  characters, 

were  baked  in  a  peculiar 
way,  making  them  almost 
indestructible.  Thousands 
of  the  tablets  have  been 
unearthed,  revealing  the 
thought  and  spirit  of  this 
ancient  people.  They  con- 
tain writings  on  religion 
and  science,  history  and 
law,  also  hymns,  penitential  psalms,  and  epic  poems.  They 
show  the  beliefs  of  the  people  in  the  form  of  myths  and 


AN  INSCRIPTION  IN 
CUNEIFOKM 


BABYLONIAN  CYLINDER 
(Supposed  to  represent  "  The  Fall.") 


26 


THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 


BABYLONIAN  GODDESS,  ISHTAR 
(From  an  Assyrian  cylinder) 


legends.  Some  of  these  stories  bear  a  striking  likeness  to  the 
stories  preserved  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures — such  as  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Garden  of 
Eden,  the  Deluge,  the 
Tower  of  Babel,  and  the  con- 
fusion of  tongues. 

Babylonian  Religion  and 
Science. —  The  Babylonians 
were  deeply  imbued  with  a 
religious  spirit,  tainted  with 
a  large  amount  of  supersti- 
tion. Their  religion  was  a 
complicated  form  of  nature 
worship.  Their  supreme  deities  were  the  gods  of  the  heaven, 
the  earth,  and  the  sea  (Ann,  Bel,  and  Ea).  Other  objects  of 
worship  were  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  several  planets. 
Ishtar,  who  corresponded  to  the  planet  Venus,  was  the  favorite 
goddess,  and  was  sometimes  called  "the  Queen  of  Babylon." 
The  people  believed  that  every  object  has  its  spirit,  good  or 
evil,  and  that  these  spirits  can  be  appeased  only  by  the  priests 
and  sorcerers  through  charms  and  magic  rites.  The  future 
life,  according  to  their  belief,  is  in  a  dark  and  gloomy  abode, 
without  happiness  or  hope. 

As  the  greater  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  the  heavens, 
the  temples  (which  were  con- 
structed of  brick)  were  built  in 
the  form  of  towers,  with  a  num- 
ber of  receding  stories,  reaching 
toward  the  sky.  Upon  the  sum- 
mit of  the  temple  tower  was  an 
image  of  the  god  to  whom  the 
tempi o  was  dedicated.  The  temples  were  presided  over  by  the 
priests,  who,  on  account  of  their  supposed  nearness  to  the  gods, 
were  able  to  exercise  a  great  influence  over  the  people. 


KAKLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT          27 

The  science  of  the  Babylonians  was  closely  connected  with 
their  religion.    As  the  gods  were  supposed  to  preside  over  the 
movement  of  the  heavenly  bodies.,  the  position  and  motion  of 
these  bodies  were  matters  of  deep  concern.    From  their  obser- 
vations the  priests  developed  a  system  of  astrology,  by  which  it 
was  thought  that  the  will  of  the  gods  could  be  determined  and 
human  events  could  be  predicted.    As  they  discovered  the  reg- 
ular movement  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  they  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  astronomical  science.    They  marked  out  the  con- 
stellations and  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.     They  di-  ^ 
vided  the  year  into  months,  weeks,  days,  hours,  | 
minutes,  and  seconds.     They  measured  the  hours         3     YY 
of  the  day  by  the  sundial,  and  the  hours  of  the 
night  by  the  water  clock.     In  their  mathematics         3     ||  | 
they  adopted  the  decimal  notation;  but  they  also         4     m 
introduced  the  "  sexagesimal "  system,  that  is,  the 
system  based  on  the  number  sixty,  which  we  have         5     107 
inherited  from  them  in  our  division  of  the  hour               Yy_ 
and  the  minute  into  sixty  parts.    The  accompany-               TTY 
ing  diagram  shows  the  Babylonian  numerals  from         7     W 
one  to  ten,  expressed  in  cuneiform  characters.    Be- 
sides acquiring  considerable  knowledge  of  mathe-               Yy 
matics,  this  people  were  the  first  to  devise  a  reg-         9     ^ 
ular  system  of  weights  and  measures.                                      ¥Yi 

The  progress  made  by  the  early  Babylonians       10      S 
in  architecture,  science,  and  the  mechanic  arts  ex-   CUNEIFORM 
ercised  a  great  influence  upon  later  nations.     In-   NUMERALS 
deed,  it  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  importance  of 
these  early  steps  in  the  world's  civilization. 

II.     ANCIENT  EGYPT 

The  Valley  of  the  Nile.— The  second  great  people  of  the 
Oriental  world  were  the  Egyptians.  Although  far  removed 
from  the  Babylonians,  and  for  a  long  time  unacquainted  with 


28  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

them,  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  not  behind  their  distant 
rivals  in  developing  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  The  early  prog- 
ress of  Egypt  was  due  to  the  favorable  conditions  furnished  by 
the  river  Nile.  What  the  Euphrates  was  to  Babylonia,  the 
Nile  was  to  Egypt. 

The  Nile  is  one  of  the  longest  rivers  of  the  world;  rising  in 
the  distant  lakes  of  central  Africa,  it  pursues  a  course  of  about 
4000  miles  on  its  way  to  the  sea.  But  the  part  of  the  valley 
occupied  by  the  Egyptian  people  extended  only  about  six  hun- 
dred miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river — to  the  rapids  called 
the  "first  cataract,"  on  the  borders  of  Ethiopia.  The  valley 
is  inclosed  on  either  side  by  low  ranges  of  mountains,  which 
furnish  stone  suitable  for  building;  and  it  is  well  to  notice 
that  this  abundant  supply  of  stone  gave  to  the  Egyptians  a 
great  advantage  over  the  Babylonians,  who  were  obliged  to 
use  the  less  durable  materials,  clay  and  brick,  for  building. 
The  valley  of  the  Nile  is  only  about  seven  or  eight  miles  in 
width — except  at  the  Delta,  where  it  spreads  out  into  an  open 
plain.  Not  only  has  this  valley  been  cut  by  the  Nile,  but  its 
fertility  is  due  to  the  annual  overflow  of  the  river,  for  the  cli- 
mate is  dry  and  rain  rarely  falls.  This  river  is  also  the  great 
highway  of  Egypt,  affording  a  ready  means  of  communication 
from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another.  The  fertile  soil  of 
Egypt  was  especially  suitable  for  the  raising  of  vegetables  and 
grain.  Rice,  oats,  barley,  and  wheat  grew  there  in  great 
abundance,  so  that  the  country  became  the  granary  of  the 
ancient  world. 

Egypt  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts.  (1)  The 
lower,  or  northern,  part  includes  the  extended  plain  about  the 
Delta,  where  the  soil  is  most  fertile,  and  where  the  earliest 
civili/aiion  was  developed.  It  was  here  that  the  first  empire 
was  established,  with  its  center  at  Memphis.  (2)  The  upper, 
or  southern,  part  includes  the  rest  of  the  valley  as  far  as  the 
"first  cataract."  This  formed  n  second  area  of  civilization, 
with  its  center  at  Thebes.  In  either  direction  from  these  two 


EAKLY  UAP.YLONIA  AND  EGYPT          29 

centers  the  banks  of  the  Nile  became  dotted  with  a  multitude 
of  towns  and  villages,  each  one  of  which  was  a  seat  of  industry 
and  art. 

The  People  of  the  Nile. — As  to  the  origin  of  the  Egyptian 
people  we  have  very  little  definite  knowledge,  except  that  they 
belonged  for  the  most  part  to  the  Hamitic  race.  It  is  supposed 
that  in  the  earliest  times — during  the  Stone  Age — the  land 
was  inhabited  by  an  uncivilized  black  people,  who  were  con- 
quered by  the  Hamites  coming  from  the  lands  along  the  south- 
ern coasts  of  the  Red  Sea,  either  from  eastern  Africa  or  from 
southwestern  Arabia.  It  is  also  supposed  by  some  writers  that 
the  early  Hamites,  before  coming  into  Egypt,  were  acquainted 
with  the  primitive  culture  of  the  people  living  in  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley.  But  whatever  may  be  said  regarding  the 
origin  of  the  Egyptian  people  is  very  largely  a  matter  of 
conjecture. 

Periods  of  Egyptian  History. — Formerly  the  chief  sources 
of  our  knowledge  of  Egypt  were,  first,  the  Greek  historians, 
especially  Herodotus,  who  visited  Egypt  in  the  fifth  century 
B.  c. ;  and,  second,  the  Egyptian  priest  Man'etho,  who  lived  in 
the  third  century  B.  c.,  and  who  wrote  a  history  containing  a 
list  of  the  various  dynasties  and  kings,  but  whose  work  has 
reached  us  only  in  fragments.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  a  vast  amount  of  additional  in- 
formation regarding  Egypt  has  been  derived  from  the  inscrip- 
tions which  have  been  deciphered  and  the  monuments  which 
have  been  brought  to  light.  With  these  sources  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  reconstruct  the  chronological  history  of 
Egypt.  But  scholars  do  not  yet  agree  in  regard  to  the  dates  of 
the  early  Egyptian  history.  The  general  divisions  of  Egyp- 
tian history  and  the  most  important  dynasties  may  be  briefly 
indicated  as  follows: 

(1)  The  Old  Empire  (about  4000-2700  B.  c.)  extended  from 
the  first  dynasty  to  the  tenth  inclusive,  with  the  capital  at 
Memphis.  The  founder  of  the  first  dynasty  was  Me'nes,  who 


30 


THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 


is  supposed  to  be  the  first  monarch  to  bring  the  whole  country 
under  a  single  government.  During  the  time  of  the  old  empire 
the  most  important  dynasty  was  the  fourth,  when  the  great 
pyramids  and  the  sphinx  were  built  at  Gizeh,  and  the  va>t 


SPHINX  AND  PYRAMID  AT  GI/KII 

necropolis,  or  rock  cemetery,  was  laid  out  at  Sakka'rah,  near 
Memphis.  The  kings  of  the  fourth  dynasty  are  known  as  the 
"  pyramid  builders,"  the  most  noted  of  whom  was  Khufu  (or 
Cheops). 

(2)  The  Middle  Empire  (about  2700-1670  B.  c.)  extended 
from  the  eleventh  to  the  seventeenth  dynasty,  with  the  capita! 
first  at  Thebes  and  afterward  at  Tanis.  The  most  important 
dynasty  was  the  twelfth,  when  Egypt  reached  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity  and  many  important  public  works  were  constructed, 
like  reservoirs  and  canals  for  irrigating  the  lands  not  reached 
by  the  overflow  of  the  Nile.  This  dynasty  was  followed  by  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  foreign  barbarian  kings,  called  the 
"  Hvksos"  or  Shepherd  Kings,  who  probably  eaine  from  Asia. 
The  rule  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  extended  from  the  thirteenth 


EARLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT         31 

to  the  seventeenth  dynasty,  and  this  was  the  darkest  period  of 
Egyptian  history. 

(3)  The  New  Empire  (1070-525  B.  c.)  extended  from  the 
eighteenth  to  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  (to  the  time  of  the  Per- 
sian conquest),  the  capital  being  again  at  Thebes  and  afterward 
at  Tanis  and  Sa'is.  During  the  eighteenth  dynasty  Egypt  recov- 
ered her  independence  by  driving  out  the  Shepherd  Kings. 
Under  Thothmes  III.  she  extended  her  power  over  Ethiopia 
and  over  Syria  as  far  as  the  Euphrates  and  the  borders  of  Asia 
Minor.  This  period  marks  the  greatest  extent  of  the  Egyptian 
empire  (map,  p.  20).  By  these  conquests  Egypt  was  brought 
into  contact  with  the  culture  of  the  Euphrates  valley,  and  de- 
rived from  the  Babylonians  a  taste  for  the 
finer  mechanical  arts,,  for  Oriental  luxury,  and 
for  a  more  palatial  architecture.1  During  the 
nineteenth  dynasty,  under  the  renowned  kings 
Seti  I.  and  his  son  Kame'ses  II.,  Egypt  reaped 
the  glorious  results  of  her  previous  conquests 
and  reached  the  highest  stage  of  her  civiliza- 
tion. From  this  time  Egypt  began  to  decline. 
In  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty  she  was  conquered 
by  the  Ethiopians  and  afterward  by  the  Assyr- 
ians. In  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  she  recov-  RAMESES 
ered  her  independence  under  the  king  Psam- 
met'ichus  I.,  but  after  a  century  she  was  finally  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  Persian  province. 

Egyptian  Society  and  Government. — Egypt,  at  the  dawn 
of  history,  had  already  become  a  united  empire.  There 
is  evidence  that  this  first  empire,  under  Menes,  had  grown 

lrrhe  great  influence  of  Babylonia  upon  Egypt  during  the  eighteenth 
dynasty  is  shown  in  the  now  famous  Tel-el-Amarna  Tablets  discovered  near 
the  Nile  in  1887 — about  three  hundred  in  all,  written  in  Babylonian  char- 
acters— containing  correspondence  between  the  Egyptian  king  (Amen- 
ho'tep  IV.,  the  "heretic  king")  and  the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia ; 
also  letters  between  Egyptian  officials,  showing  that  the  Babylonian 
was  the  official  diplomatic  language  in  Egypt  at  the  time.  See  Goodspeed, 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  p.  134. 


32  THE    ORIENTAL   WORLD 

up  from  a  union  of  towns  and  villages  which  were  pre- 
viously independent,  each  under  its  own  ruler  and  priests. 
These  towns  became  grouped  into  districts,  or  "  nomes."  under 
local  governors;  and  these  in  turn  were  gradually  brought 
under  the  common  authority  of  a  king  who  ruled  over  the 
whole  country.  The  people  were  not  equal,  but  were  divided 
into  classes.  The  upper  classes  included  the  priests,  whose  of- 
fice was  hereditary,  and  the  warriors,  who  were  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  military  pursuits.  The  lower  classes  comprised  the 
common  people,  including  the  artisans,  the  farmers,  and  the 
herdsmen.  The  land  was  generally  owned  by  the  upper  classes, 
and  let  out  to  the  peasants,  who  paid  their  rent  in  the  products 
of  the  soil.  Above  all  these  classes  was  the  king,  or  Pha'raoh. 
who  was  looked  upon  as  a  divine  person.  He  was  the  fountain 
of  all  authority;  and  the  labor,  the  property,  and  the  lives  of  the 
people  were  at  his  disposal.  The  king  was  assisted  in  his  gov- 
ernment by  a  body  of  councilors,  who  carried  out  his  will. 
The  highest  offices  of  the  state  were  held  by  the  priests,  who 
were  exempted  from  all  taxes  and  held  the  best  parts  of  the 

land.  The  government 
was  supported  by  the 
army,  or  warrior  class, 
which  was  also  exempt 
K('YI>"ANS  S()WIN(!  from  taxes  and  held 

large  landed  estates.  The  great  body  of  government  officials 
preyed  upon  the  common  people,  who  were  obliged  to  furnish 
their  tribute  and  labor.  The  government  of  such  a  body  of 
taxgatherers  and  taskmasters  necessarily  became  corrupt  and 
oppressive.  We  read  of  workmen,  goaded  by  tyrannical  mas- 
ters, rising  in  revolt  in  the  manner  of  a  modern  "  strike  "  and 
refusing  to  continue  their  work.  Sometimes  their  tasks  were 
lightened,  but  quite  as  often  they  were  made  more  heavy — as 
in  the  case  of  the  Israelites  in  tin-  time  of  Moses. 

Egyptian  Industry  and  Industrial  Arts. — The  Egyptians, 
like  the  Babylonians,  were  first  of  all  an  agricultural  people. 


EARLY    BABYLONIA    AM)    EGYPT 


33 


EGYPTIAN  SHOEMAKER'S  SHOP 


For  regulating  and  distributing  the  water  supply  of  the  Nile 
they  built  canals  and  reservoirs.    The  most  remarkable  of  these 

artificial   reservoirs   was ..... 

Lake  Mceris,  by  which  a 
large  outlying  district 
was  transformed  from  a 
desert  waste  into  fertile 
fields.  After  their  con- 
tact with  the  Babylo- 
nians, the  Egyptians  acquired  great  skill  in  the  industrial  arts, 
working  in  clay,  stone,  and  glass;  in  wood,  ivory,  leather,  and 
the  textile  fabrics;  in  the  coarser  metals  bronze,  lead,  and  iron; 
and  in  the  precious  metals  gold  and  silver.  They  exchanged 
these  products  with  one  another,  by  boats  plying  the  waters  of 
the  Nile,  which  became  an  artery  of  commerce.  Their  com- 
merce with  foreign  countries,  however,  was  small. 

Egyptian  Religion  and  Science. — The  religion  of  Egypt  was 
a  strange  mixture  of  various  kinds  of  worship.  The  lowest 
form  of  religion  was  animal  worship,  such  as 
was  prevalent  among  the  primitive  tribes  of 
Africa.  The  crocodile,  the  serpent,  the  hawk, 
the  cow,  the  cat,  a'nd  many  other  animals  were 
held  as  sacred.  For  many  centuries  the  bull 
Apis  was  worshiped  as  an  important  god  at 
Memphis.  This  low  form  of  worship  survived 
in  Egypt  even  after  the  development  of  higher 
religious  ideas.  Besides  this  animal  worship 
we  find  a  complex  form  of  nature  worship. 
The  forces  of  nature  were  worshiped  as  gods, 
and  represented  in  human  forms.  The  mix- 
ture of  these  two  forms  of  religion — animal 
worship  and  nature  worship — is  seen  in  the 
representation  of  the  gods  with  human  bodies  and  the  heads  of 
animals.  The  animal  features  came  afterward  to  be  regarded 
as  simply  symbolical  of  spiritual  qualities.  In  the  higher 


SERAPIS 


AMUN 


THE    ORIENTAL   WORLD 

gods,  however,  human  heads 
were  joined  to  human  bodies. 
The  chief  object  of  nature 
worship  was  the  sun,  the  source 
of  light  and  life,  whose  journey 
through  the  heavens  was  the 
cause  of  day  and  night  and  an 
emblem  of  life  and  death.  The 
sun  god  was  worshiped  under 
different  names  at  different 
places — as  Ptah  at  Memphis,  as 
Amun-Ka  at  Thebes,  as  Osi'ris  at 
certain  other  cities.  The  gods 
were  often  joined  in  "  triads  "- 


PTAH 


the  most  noted  of  which  was  that  of  Osiris  the  father,  Isis  the 
mother,  and  Horus  the  son.  With  the  recognition  of  a  supreme 
god,  the  most  learned  men  of  Egypt  attained  an  idea  which  ap- 
proached that  of  monotheism.  We  sometimes  find  in  the  old 
records  such  statements  as  this:  "Before  all  things  which 


JUDGMENT  OF  THE  SOUL  BEFORE  OSIRIS 


actually  exist,  and  before  all  beginnings,  there  is  one  God,  un- 
moved in  the  singleness  of  his  own  Unity." 

The  Egyptians  believed  in  the  continued  existence  of  the 
soul  after  death.  This  belief  led  to  tlie  practice  of  einbaliiiiii.ir 
the  body  of  the  deceased,  that  the  mummy  might  be  preserved 


EARLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT 


35 


for  the  return  of  the  spirit.  The  Egyptians  also  believed  in  a 
system  of  future  rewards  and  punishments,  and  that  every  soul 
must  be  judged  before  Osiris  for  the  deeds  done  in  the  body. 
The  priests  of  Egypt,  who  had  charge  of  the  religion,  were  also 
tlic  learned  class.  They  cultivated  philosophy  and  the  various 
sciences — astronomy,  geometry,  arithmetic,  and  medicine — 
which  here  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  development. 


AN  EGYPTIAN  TEMPLE 

Egyptian  Architecture  and  Monuments. — The  religious 
spirit  of  the  Egyptians  was  strongly  impressed  upon  their  archi- 
tecture, which  consisted  mainly  of  tombs  and  temples.  The 
buildings  for  the  dead  are  seen  in  the  rock-sepulchers  cut  in  the 
sides  of  the  hills  which  flanked  the  Nile — for  example,  the 
extensive  necropolis  at  Sakkarah  (near  Memphis).  Sep- 
arate monumental  tombs  took  the  form  of  pyramids,  and 
reached  the  most  gigantic  proportions  at  Gizeh.  In  these  arti- 
ficial mountains  of  stone  rested  the  remains  of  kings.  The 
most  impressive  specimens  of  architecture  are  seen  in  the  mass- 
ive temples,  which  were  often  made  up  of  a  combination  of 
columns  and  sculptured  walls.  Noted  examples  of  these  tem- 
ples were  those  of  Luxor  and  Karnak  and  the  Ramesse'um 
near  Thebes,  the  ruins  of  which  are  among  the  most  imposing 
in  the  world.  Egyptian  architecture  is  distinguished  by  sim- 
plicity of  general  design,  but  especially  by  grandeur  of  propor- 
tions and  great  elaborateness  of  decoration.  It  is  also  distin- 


36  THE    ORIENTAL   WORLD 

guished,  in  some  cases,  by  the  use  of  columns  as  a  means  ol 
supporting  the  roof — a  feature  which  was  afterward  adopted 
by  the  Greeks. 

Egyptian  Sculpture.  Painting,  and  Music. — The  other  arts 
were  also  cultivated  by  the  Egyptians.  This  people  was  prob- 
ably the  first  to  make  sculpture  an  independent  art, — that  is, 
not  joined  to  architecture.  Some  of  the  best  of  their  statues 
belong  to  a  very  early  period.  The  colossal  sphinx  is  perhaps 
the  most  ancient  example  of  independent  sculpture  existing 


COLOSSAL  STATUES  OF  RAMESES  II. 

in  the  world.  But  a  less  pretentious  form  of  statuary  grew  up 
in  the  form  of  portrait  statues,  which  wore  placed  in  the  tombs 
to  preserve  the  image  of  the  deceased.  Many  of  these  portrait 
statues  show  a  considerable  degree  of  artistic  skill.  But  Egyp- 
tian sculpture  came  to  lose  its  independent  character  and  to  be 
used  for  the  decoration  of  buildings.  It  appears  in  immense 
figures  affixed  to  tombs  and  temples,  and  jilsn  in  tin-  multitude 


EARLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT          37 

of  bas-reliefs  which  adorned  the  walls  of  buildings.  These 
sculptured  designs  were  almost  always  colored;  and  this  addi- 
tion of  color  to  carving  was  probably  the  earliest  step  in  the 
growth  of  painting.  The  subjects  of  these  paintings  are  almost 
infinite  in  variety,  from  the  representation  of  the  gods  to 
scenes  of  domestic  life.  The  Egyptians  also  attained  some 
skill  in  music;  they  possessed  such  instruments  as  the  guitar, 
the  harp,  and  the  pipe,  and  the  drum  and  the  trumpet  inspired 
the  Egyptian  soldier  on  his  march. 

Egyptian  Writing  and  Literature. — The  great  number  of 
inscriptions  cut  upon  the  buildings  and  monuments  indicate 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  Egyptian  writing,  and  one  of  the 
ways  in  which  records  were  kept.  On  account  of  these  inscrip- 
tions and  designs  the  buildings  are  veritable  books  in  stone. 
But.  they  remained  practically  sealed  books  until  a  key  was 
found  by  which,  the  inscriptions  could  be  deciphered.  The 
"  Roset'ta  stone,"  discovered  near  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Nile  (1799),  contained  a  royal  decree  written  in  three  kinds  of 
characters,  the  hieroglyphic,  the  demotic,  and  the  Greek.  With 
this  key  the  French  scholar  Champollion  deciphered  the  lan- 
guage (1821),  and  may  be  said  to  have  unlocked  the  treasure- 
house  of  Egyptian  learning.  This  line  gives  an  example  of 
the  hieroglyphic  characters : 1 


The  written  language  of  Egypt  had  its  origin  in  picture 
writing.  The  most  ancient  form  is  the  hieroglyphic,  made  up 
of  pictures  of  things  and  symbols  of  ideas.  The  next  form  is 
the  hieratic,  which  was  used  by  the  priests  for  executing  long 
records,  and  hence  is  a  more  cursive,  or  running,  form.  The 
final  form  is  called  the  demotic  because  it  was  used  by  the 

1  The  line  is  read  from  right  to  left,  and  is  translated  thus  :  "Raising  | 
statue  |  of  king  of  Egypt  |  Ptolemy  eternal  beloved  of  Ptah." 

MQREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST.— 3 


38  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

people.  The  Egyptian  writing  contains  not  only  ideographic 
but  also-  phonetic  elements, — that  is,  the  symbols  represent 
not  only  ideas  but  sounds,  containing  the  germs  of  a  phonetic 
alphabet  by  which  words  could  be  represented.  The  Egyptians 
did  not  confine  their  writing  to  stone;  they  also  used  a  kind 
of  paper  prepared  from  the  papyrus  plant.  Their  literature 
contained  many  books  upon  science  and  religion;  the  most  re- 


MUMMY  AND  MUMMY  CASE 

markable  of  these  is  the  so-called  "  Book  of  the  Dead,"  which 
contains  descriptions  of  the  future  life. 

The  Influence  of  Egypt. — Egypt  held  a  place  in  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  somewhat  similar  to  that  held  by  Babylonia  in 
the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley.  They  both  represent  the  early 
stages  in  the  world's  civilization,  and  contributed  much  to  the 
progress  of  later  nations.  But  the  culture  of  Egypt  was  not 
at  first  so  widely  diffused  as  was  that 'of  Babylonia.  Egypt, 
however,  formed  one  of  the  great  sources  of  Oriental  culture, 
from  which  Europe  and  modern  countries  have  received  valu- 
able materials.  Egypt  taught  the  world  the  principles  of  a 
durable  architecture.  It  is  true  that  the  Babylonians  built 
elaborate  structures  of  brick,  but  these  have  well-nigh  per- 
ished, while  the  stone  buildings  of  Egypt  have  withstood  in 
a  wonderful  manner  the  destructive  influences  of  time.  In- 
deed, we  might  say  that  one  great  difference  between  the  mate- 
rial civilization  of  Babylonia  and.  that  of  Egypt  was  the  fact 
that  one  was  wrought  in  clay  and  the  other  in  stone.  The 


EARLY  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT          39 

Greeks,  no  doubt,  derived  much  of  their  early  knowledge  of  ar- 
chitecture from  the  Egyptians.  The  Egyptians  have  also  exer- 
cised a  strong  intellectual  iniluciuc  upon  the  world.  The 
progress  made  by  them  in  some  of  the  sciences  —  especially  in 
geometry  and  astronomy  —  was  appreciated  by  later  nations, 
and  formed  a  basis  for  further  scientific  achievements.  Tln'ir 
higher  religious  ideas  —  for  example,  their  idea  of  a  Supreme 
Being  and  of  a  future  life  —  may  have  had  some  influence 
upon  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews  and  even  upon  that  of  Chris- 
tian nations.  We  may,  therefore,  look  upon  Egypt  as  one  of 
the  sources  of  modern  thought  and  culture. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    BEVIEW 

I.  THE    EARLY    BABYLONIAN    EMPIRE.  —  The    First    Centers    of 
Civilization.—  The     Tigris-Euphrates     Valley.—  The     Early     City 
States;    Sargon    I.  —  Hammurabi    and    the    Old    Babylonian    Em- 
pire. —  The    Kassite   Conquest.  —  Babylonian    Industry   and   Art.  — 
Babylonian    Government    and    Laws.  —  Babylonian    Writing    and 
Literature.  —  Babylonian  Religion  and  Science. 

II.  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  —  The   Valley  of  the  Nile.  —  The  People  of 
the  Nile.  —  Periods  of  Egyptian   History.  —  Egyptian   Society   and 
Government.  —  Egyptian  Industry  and  Industrial  Arts.—  Egyptian 
Religion  and  Science.  —  Egyptian  Architecture  and  Monuments.  — 
Egyptian  Sculpture,  Painting-,  and  Music.  —  Egyptian  Writing  and 
Literature.  —  The  Influence  of  Egypt. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Murison,  Babylonia,  Ch.  1,  "Ancient  Babylonia";   Ch.  2,  "United 

Babylonia"  (5).1 
-  Egypt,  Ch.   1,   "Introductory";    Ch.   2,   "The  Ancient  King- 

dom";   Ch.    3,   "The   Middle   Kingdom";    Ch.    4,    "Eighteenth 

Dynasty";    Ch.   12,  "The  Book  of  the  Dead"   (6). 
Goodspeed,  Introduction,  Ch.  2,  "Excavations  in  Babylonia  and 

Assyria";  p.  64    (Ur  of  the  "Chaldees")  ;  also  Index,  "IV  (5). 
Encyclopaedia   Britannica,   Tenth   Ed.,  Vol.  29,  "Irrigation"   (an- 

cient and  modern). 
Rawlinson,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  67-69,  70-73,  82,  86,  279,  340,  384   (uses  of 

clay  and  brick  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley)    (4). 
Ragozin,  Chaldea,  Ch.  5,  "Babylonian   Relic-ion"  Yr>). 
Ducoudray,  Ch.  5,  "The  Monuments  and  Arts  of  Egypt"  (1). 


figure  in  narenthps's  refprs  to  flip  mirnb«r  of  the  topic  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


^PROGRESSIVE 


PHCENICIA 

AND  ITS 

COLONIAL  EMPIRE 
About  1 100-900  B.C. 


X) 


MEDITERRANEAN 
Sidoi 
Tyr 


Sat 
Joppaj 


SYRIAN 
DESERT 


THE 

SYRIAN  STATES" 
About  950  B.C. 


ions  of  Solomon 
about  1000  B.C- 


PHOENICIA    AND    JUDEA  41 

• 
Lenormant,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  5,  "Civilization,  Manners,  and 

Monuments  of  Egypt"   (4). 
Boughtou,  pp.  211-250,  "The  New    Empire— XVIIIth   and  XlXth 

Dynasties";  pp.  428-450,  "The  Mesopotainians"  (4). 
Kawlinsoii,  Story  of  Egypt,  Ch.  4,  "The  Pyramid  Builders"   (6). 
Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,   Part  1.,   "Egypt"    (4). 
.\iaspero,  Egyptian  Archa?ology,  Ch.  5,  "The  Industrial  Arts"  (6). 
Smith,  P.,  Ch.  1,  ss.  3,  8  (sources  and  inundations  of  the  Nile); 

Ch.    2    (authorities   for   the   history   of   Egypt) ;    Ch.   3,    s.    9 

(the     sphinx);     Ch.     9,    "Industry,     Religion,    and    Arts   of 

Egypt"  (4). 
Newberry    and    Garstang,     Ch.     2,     "The    Archaic    Period     [of 

Egypt]"  (6). 

Breasted,  Ch.  3,  "Earliest  Egypt";  see  also  Index,  "Obelisk"  (6). 
Herodotus,    Bk.    II.,    Chs.    35-99    (manners    and    customs   of    the 

Egyptians);     Bk.    III.,    Chs.     147-152     (accession    of    Psam- 

metichus)   (17). 


CHAPTER    III 

THE  SYRIAN  STATES— PHOENICIA  AND  JUDEA 

I.     PHOENICIA  AND  ANCIENT  COMMERCE 

Phoenicia  and  its  People. — On  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  was  a  land  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
the  meeting  ground  of  the  Babylonians  and  the  Egyptians. 
For  the  want  of  any  other  common  name  we  call  this  land 
Syria.'  The  most  important  peoples  living  here  were  the 
Phoenicians  and  the  Hebrews,  both  of  whom  belonged  to  the 
Semitic  race.  Of  these  the  first  to  reach  an  important 
position  in  the  Oriental  world  were  the  Phcenicians.  Their 
home  was  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  bordering  on  the 
shores  of  the  sea,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long  and 
from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  in  width,  and  shut  off  from  the  inte- 
rior of  the  country  by  the  range  of  the  Leb'anon  Mountains. 
Tin's  country,  having  been  conquered  in  succession  by  Baby- 
lonia and  Egypt,  became  the  common  heir  of  the  two  older  civ- 


42  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

• 
ilizations.    For  example,  the  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  was  a 

form  of  nature  worship  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  Babylo- 
nians. Their  architecture  was,  in  its  main  features,  modeled 
upon  that  of  the  Egyptians.  In  their  mechanic  arts  they  also 
showed  the  same  refined  skill  as  their  older  neighbors.  The 
Phoenicians  were  distinguished  for  their  glass  and  metal  work, 
their  pottery,  their  textile  fabrics,  and  especially  for  their 
purple  dyes,  which  they  obtained  from  a  sea  snail  that  was 
found  along  the  Mediterranean  coasts.  Besides  obtaining 
many  scientific  ideas  from  Babylonia  and  Egypt,  they  are 
said  to  have  discovered  the  relation,  between  the  tides  of  the 
sea  and  the  motions  of 
the  moon.  In  their 
limited  territory  they 
had  no  passion  for  mili- 
tary glory  or  political 
dominion;  they  p  r  e- 
ferred  to  pay  tribute  to 
others,  and  pursue  their 
industry.  Their  govern- 
ment was  mainly  a  SHELLS  OF  THE  SEA  SNAIL  FROM  WHICH 
government  of  separate  THE  PUBPLE  DYE  WAS  MADE 

cities,  but  sometimes  these  were  grouped  into  loose  confeder- 
acies. Their  greatest  cities  were  Sidon  and  Tyre,  which  were 
in  succession  the  chief  seats  of  Phoenician  civilization. 

Phoenician  Commerce. — The  great  distinction  of  this  people 
was  their  genius  for  trade  and  commerce.  Uppn  the  sea  the 
Phoenicians  established  an  empire  perhaps  equal  in  importance 
to  that  which  any  other  Oriental  people  had  established  upon 
the  land.  The  cedars  of  Lebanon  furnished  timber  for  their 
ships;  and  with  these  they  became  the  first  masters  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  greatest  commercial  nation  of  ancient  times. 
Their  fleets  eslnMislied  the  first  commercial  intercourse  be- 
tween Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  They  not  only  exported  their 
own  products  to  other  countries,  but  they  became  the  common 


PHOENICIA    AND    JUDEA  43 

carriers  for  the  known  world.  From  India  they  brought  ivory, 
jewels,  spices,  and  scented  wood.  From  Arabia  they  brought 
gold,  precious  stones,  incense,  and  myrrh.  From  the  coasts  of 
Ktliiopia  they  added  to  their  cargoes  of  gold  and  ivory  supplies 
of  ebony  and  ostrich  feathers.  They  brought  from  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  yellow  amber ;  from  Spain,  silver,  iron,  lead,  and 
copper;  from  Africa  the  precious  metals;  and  from  Britain  tin. 
Thus  the  different  parts  of  the  world  were  brought  into  relation 
with  one  another  by  the  Phoenician  mariners  and  merchants. 

Phoenician  Colonies. — To  aid  in  extending  their  commerce 
the  Phoenicians  established  trading  posts,  or  colonies,  in  all 
the  countries  visited  by  their  ships 
and  merchants.  Not  only  were 
these  established  in  the  civilized 
countries  of  the  East  for  the  pur- 
chase and  exchange  of  wares;  they 
were  also  established  among  the 
uncivilized  peoples  of  the  West  for 
the  development  of  the  resources 
of  new  lands.  The  coasts  of  A  PHQ^ICIAN  BIREME 
the  Mediterranean  became  dotted  with  Phoenician  colonies. 
The  most  famous  of  these  colonies  was  Carthage  (founded, 
about  850  B.  c.),  which  itself  established  a  commercial  empire 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  which  in  later  times  came 
into  a  bitter  conflict  with  Rome.  The  colonies  on  the  Medi- 
terranean were  largely  mining  stations,  where  the  metals  were 
extracted  from  the  earth  for  the  use  of  eastern  factories.  By 
thus  coming  into  contact  with  the  barbarous  people  on  the 
European  coasts,  the  Phoenicians  diffused  among  them  a  taste 
for  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  They  carried  not  only  commodi- 
ties but  culture.  They  have  on  this  account  been  called  the 
first  "  missionaries  of  civilization." 

The  Phoenician  Alphabet. — Perhaps  the  greatest  gift  of  the 
Phoenicians  to  the  world  was  a  true  phonetic  alphabet.  It  is 
said  that  the  Phoenicians  invented  their  alphabetical  writing  as 


THE    OKIENTAL   WORLD 


a  common  language  of  commerce.  Wher- 
ever they  sailed  and  carried  their  cargoes, 
they,  also  carried  their  alphabet,  which 
Eenan  aptly  calls  one  of  their  «  exports." 
The  alphabet  was,  however,  the  result  of 
a  long  process  of  growth.  The  earliest 
writing  was  in  the  form  of  pictures  to 
represent  material  objects,  and  then  in 
the  form  of  symbols  to  represent  abstract 
ideas.  The  Egyptians  made  great  prog- 
ress by  using  signs  to  represent  syllables, 
and  afterward  to  represent  elementary 
sounds  (p.  38).  This  was  the  beginning 
of  alphabetic  writing;  but  tlie  signs  used 
by  the  Egyptians  were  very  indefinite  and 
largely  pictorial;  for  example,  the  sound 
of  A  was  represented  by  the  picture  of  a 
feather  or  by  that  of  an  eagle.  It  was 
reserved  for  the  Phoenicians  to  develop  a 
true  phonetic  alphabet,  in  which  the  chief 
elementary  sounds  were  represented  by 
separated  and  well-defined  characters. 
This  alphabet  was  adopted  by  many  peo- 
ples, especially  by  the  Greeks,  who  gave  it 
to  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  given  to 
modern  nations.  Thus  the  Phoenicians, 
by  the  development  of  commerce  and  the 
invention  of  a  true  phonetic  alphabet,  and  also  by  their  diffu- 
sion of  Oriental  culture  over  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  must 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  of  ancient  nations. 

II.      JUDEA   AND  THE  HEBREWS 

The  Hebrew  Nation. — Not  far  from  Phoenicia  in  Palestine 
there  grew  up  another  Semitic  nation,  which  was  in  many  re- 


j 

Old  Greek.  ' 

Old  Roman. 

E-5 
•OM 

A 

A 

A 

A 

1 

ft 

B 

B 

> 

c 

<C 

C 

A 

>D 

D 

D 

-^ 

£ 

E 

E 

* 

<N 

F 

F 

C 

G 

fth 

EH 

H 

H 

i 

I 

I 

I 

J 

7\ 

K 

K 

K 

!  . 

I/ 

V  L 

L 

W\ 

At 

M 

M 

N 

N 

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N 

0 

O 

0 

0 

0 

P 

PP 

P 

9 

9 

9Q 

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PR 

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T 

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T 

GROWTH  OF  THE 

ALPHABET 

PHOENICIA    AND    JUDEA  45 

spects  different  from  every  other  Oriental  people  (see  map,  p. 
40).  This  was  the  Hebrew  nation.  Having  no  great  river  like 
that  of  the  Egyptians  and  that  of  the  Babylonians,  arid  not  tak- 
ing to  the  sea  like  the  Phoenicians,  they  did  not  attain  distinc- 
tion in  the  industrial  or  commercial  arts.  Their  greatness  did 
not  depend  upon  art  or  science,  or  upon  their  capacity  for  po- 
litical organization.  Yet  they  have  perhaps  done  for  civiliza- 
tion as  much  as  any  other  people  of  the  East,  for  they  became 
the  moral  and  religious  teachers  of  the  world. 

Periods  of  Jewish  History. — No  other  ancient  nation  pos- 
sessed so  complete  a  record  as  did  the  Hebrews  of  the  way  in 
which  a  people  has  passed  from  the  primitive  to  the  civilized 
stage.  From  these  records,  we  learn  that  their  ancestor, 
Abram,  was  a  Babylonian,  that  he  came  (about  2000  B.  c.) 
from  Ur,  a  "  city  of  the  Chaldees,"  that  he  visited  Egypt,  and 
finally  settled  in  Jude'a.  His  descendants,  in  the  time  of  a 
famine,  took  refuge  in  Egypt,  and  became  subject  to  the  Shep- 
herd Kings,  who  assigned  to  them  a  home  in  lower  Egypt 
(Goshen).  Being  oppressed  by  a  king  of  a  subsequent  dynasty, 
they  were  delivered  from  their  bondage  by  their  great  leader 
and  lawgiver,  Moses,  a  man  skilled  in  all  the  learning  of 
Egypt.  From  this  time  the  history  of  the  Jews  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  periods: 

(1)  From  Hie  Exodus  to  the  Establishment  of  the  Monarchy 
(1300-1095  B.  c.). — During  this  time  the  people  were  welded 
into  a  nation,  with  a  national  law  and  a  national  religion, 
under  the  statesmanship  of  Moses.     They  crossed  the  Jordan 
under  their  leader  Joshua,  captured  Jer'icho,  conquered  the 
surrounding  country  in  Palestine  (or  Canaan,  as  they  called 
it),  and  established  a  theocratic  commonwealth  under  the  rule 
of  officers  called  "  judges." 

(2)  From  the  Establishment  of  the  Monarchy  to  the  Divi- 
sion of  the  Kingdom  (1095-975  B.  c.). — During  this  period  the 
nation  was  ruled  by  three  distinguished  kings.     The  first  of 
these  was  Saul,  who  carried  on  war  with  the  neighboring  tribes. 


46  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

the  Am'monites,  the  Philis'tines,  and  others.  The  second  king 
was  David,  who  captured  Jerusalem  and  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  building  a  royal  palace,  with  the  aid  of  Phoeni- 
cian architects.  By  his  conquests  he  established  an  empire 
extending  from  the  Euphrates  on  the  north  to  the  Red  Sea  on 
the  south.  The  third  and  last  king  of  the  united  monarchy 
was  Solomon,  who  gave  to  the  kingdom  an  air  of  Oriental  mag- 
nificence. He  built  a  splendid  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and 


TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM  (Restoration) 

adorned  the  city  with  sumptuous  palaces.  He  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  kings  of  Tyre,  and  carried  on  an  extensive 
commerce  with  Egypt  and  the  East.  He  amassed  enormous 
wealth  and  surrounded  his  throne  with  pomp  and  splendor. 
He  married  an  Egyptian  princess,  and  established  a  luxurious 
court  like  that  of  the  eastern  kings.  But  his  glory  was  pur- 
chased at  the  expense  of  justice  and  his  nation's  honor.  He 
laid  heavy  burdens  upon  his  subjects  and  impoverished  them. 
He  disregarded  the  laws  of  Moses,  and  the  Hebrew  kingdom 
became  practically  an  Oriental  monarchy  like  that  of  Babylon. 


PHOENICIA    AND    JUDEA  47 

(3)  From  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom  to  the  Babylonish 
Captivity  (975-586  B.  c.). — During  this  time  the  Hebrew  na- 
tion formed  two  distinct  kingdoms.  Ten  tribes  revolted  and 
formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  with  its  capital  at  Sama'ria;  the 
remaining  two  tribes  formed  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  with  its 
capital  at  Jerusalem.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  was  finally  con- 
quered by  the  Assyrian  king  Sargon  II.  (722  B.  c.),  and  the 
people  were  removed  to  Nineveh,  where  they  were  "  lost "  as  a 
separate  people  (see  p.  53).  The  kingdom  of  Judah  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Babylonian  king  Nebuchadnezzar  (586  B.  c.), 
and  the  inhabitants  were  carried  away  as  captives  to  Baby- 
lon (see  p.  58) ;  but  they  were  afterward  allowed  to  return 
to  Jerusalem  (537  B.  c.)  as  subjects  of  Cyrus,  the  Persian 
king. 

The  Hebrew  Commonwealth. — Before  the  Hebrew  nation 
passed  under  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  their  society 
is  of  special  interest  to  us,  because  it  was  patterned  upon  a 
pure  democratic  type.  The  Hebrew  commonwealth  presents 
the  best,  and  perhaps  the  only,  example  of  a  true  democracy 
among  ancient  civilized  nations  before  the  time  of  the  Greeks. 
The  society  was  based  upon  the  patriarchal  family.  The 
father  was  head  of  the  family  group  and  priest  of  the  family 
worship.  Parental,  marital,  and  filial  duties  were  the  sacred 
ties  of  social  life.  The  families  were  grouped  into  tribes,  each 
under  a  patriarchal  chief,  a  council  of  elders,  and  a  general 
assembly.  The  tribes  were  united  into  a  larger  federal  com- 
monwealth, with  its  judge,  who  was  a  patriarchal  and  military 
chieftain;  its  san'hedrim,  which  was  a  national  senate,  or  fed- 
eral council;  and  its  "  congregation,"  which  was  a  popular  as- 
sembly of  the  tribes.  Each  tribe  retained  the  right  of  local 
self-government,  and  all  its  people  were  equal  before  the  law — 
except  the  slaves,  who  were,  however,  generally  well  treated. 
The  decay  of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth  was  due  to  the  influx 
of  Oriental  ideas,  and  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  primitive 
customs  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 


48  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

The  Hebrew  Religion;  Monotheism. — In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  people  and  the  rulers  were  often  led  astray  by  the 
influence  of  foreign  religious  ideas,  still  the  highest  and  most 
distinctive  feature  of  the  Jewish  civilization  was  the  growth 
of  monotheism.  We  must  judge  of  the  real  character  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  not  by.  the  practices  of  those  who  departed 
from  it,  but  by  the  teachings  of  those  who  were  its  highest  ex- 
pounders— Moses  and  the  prophets.  In  these  great  teachers 
we  find  the  true  idea  of  monotheism.  This  is  not  simply  the 
idea  of  the  Egyptians,  that  there  is  one  god  higher  than  other 

gods;  it  is  the  idea  that  there  is 
only  one  Supreme  God.  Another 
feature  of  the  Jewish  religion  was 
the  fact  that  it  was  closely  linked 
|^  to  morality.  Religious  worship  and 
moral  duty  were  regarded  as  two 
sides  of  a  complete  life.  The  his- 
tory of  the  nation  was  a  constant 
struggle  against  false  ideas  of  re- 
ligion and  false  ideas  of  morality. 
When  the  priests  were  carried  away 
with  the  idea  that  religion  con- 
sisted simply  in  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies, and  the  kings  were  seeking 

the  pomp  and  luxury  of  the  East,  and  the  people  were  falling 
into  wickedness  and  idolatry,  it  was  left  to  the  later  prophets 
to  become  the  true  expounders  of  religion  and  the  moral  law. 
The  Hebrew  Literature;  the  Bible. — The  idea  of  monothe- 
ism was  the  inspiring  idea  of  the  Hebrew  literature,  as  it  was 
of  the  Hebrew  religion.  This  literature  is  contained  in  what 
we  call  the  Old  Testament,  and  comprises  (1)  the  Pentateuch, 
or  the  legal  books;  (2)  the  historical  books;  (3)  the  poetical 
books;  and  (4)  the  books  of  the  prophets.  In  their  literary 
genius  the  Hebrews  surpassed  all  other  ()ri<-nt;il  MM  lions.  In 
the  writings  of  their  poets  and  prophets  we  find  the  highest 


PHOENICIA    AND    JUDEA  49 

examples  of  religious  fervor  and  imaginative  description.  The 
Psalms  of  David,  the  Book  of  Job,  and  the  Prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  considered  merely  as  literary  compositions,  are  unsur- 
passed in  the  literature  of  any  people.  When  we  consider  the 
writings  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  religious  influence  upon  the 
civilized  world,  we  must  assign  to  this  nation  a  high  place 
among  the  historical  peoples  of  ancient  times. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  PHOENICIA  AND  ANCIENT  COMMERCE. — Phoenicia  and  its  Peo- 
ple.— Phoenician   Commerce.— Phoenician   Colonies. — The   Phoeni- 
cian Alphabet. 

II.  JUDEA  AND  THE  HEBREWS. — The  Hebrew  Nation. — Periods 
of  Jewish  History. — The  Hebrew  Commonwealth. — The  Hebrew 
Religion;  Monotheism. — The  Hebrew  Literature;  the  Bible. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Art.  "Phoenicia." 

Rawlinson,  History  of  Phoenicia,  Ch.   18,  "Phoenician  Manufac- 
tures" (7).1 
Lenormant,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  VI.,  Ch.  4,  "Civilization  and  Influence  of 

the  Phoenicians"   (4). 

Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  Part  II.,  "Phoenicia"   (4). 
Ducoudray,'Ch.  4,  "Religion  and  Social  State  of  the  Jews";  Ch. 

5,  "Phoenician  Commerce"  (1). 
Boughton,  pp.  291-344,  "  The  Phoenicians  ";  pp.   393-406,  "Israelitish 

Institutions"  (4). 

Souttar,  pp.  191-276,  "The  Hebrews";  pp.  277-306,  "Phoenicia"  (1). 
Milman,  History  of  the  Jews,  Bk.  III.,  "The  Desert"  (en  passant, 

idolatry  among-  the  Jews) ;  Bk.  VII.,  "The  Monarchy"  (with 

its  Oriental  features)    (7). 
Edersheim,  Ch.  12,  "Sickness  and  Death"   (sanitary  features  of 

the  Mosaic  law)    (7). 

Josephus,  Wars,  Bk.  VI.  (siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus)   (9). 
The    Bible,    Numbers,    Ch.  4    (the    Levites    and    their    duties); 

Ezekiel,  Chs.  26-28  (exaltation  of  Tyre). 

irThe  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


Theb 


T   H 


MEDITERRANEAN 


ARABIA 


THE  EAST 

AhTKK  THK 
FALL  OF  As-YKIA 

About  000  K.C. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


50 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  NEW  SEMITIC  EMPIRES— ASSYRIA  AND  LATER 
BABYLONIA 

I.      ASSYKIA,    THE    FlRST   WORLD    EMPIRE 

The  Rise  of  Assyria. — We  are  now  brought  to  a  new  period 
in  Oriental  history,  in  which  all  the  previous  nations  of  the 
East — not  only  the  Phoenicians  and  the  Hebrews,  but  also  the 
Babylonians  and  the  Egyptians — lose  their  independence,  and 
become  parts  of  one  great  world  empire. '  The  people  who  es- 
tablished this  empire  were  the  Assyrians,  They  belonged  to 
the  Semitic  race,  like  the  Babylonians,  and  dwelt  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates,  or  Mesopotamian,  valley.  In  the 
rugged  climate  of  the  north  they  developed  a  hardy  and  war- 
like character.  The  Assyrians  have  been  compared  to  the  Ro- 
mans as  a  military  and  conquering  people.  They  cultivated 
the  arts  of  warj  having  well  organized  bodies  of  infantry,  cav- 
alry, and  war  chariots. 

The  center  of  Assyrian  power  was  at  first  the  city  of  As- 
sur;  this  was  a  colony  of  Babylonia  situated  on  the  upper 
Tigris  River  and  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  god  Assur.  The 
city  obtained  its  independence  from  Babylonia,  and  gave  the 
name  "  Assyria  "  to  the  whole  surrounding  country.  After  a 
time,  the  Assyrian  capital  was  transferred  from  Assur  to  Nine- 
veh (by  Shalmane'ser  I.,  1320  B.  a);  and  this  new  capital  be- 
came the  permanent  seat  of  the  empire.  The  external  history 
of  Assyria  is  a  history  of  almost  continual  wars,  resulting  in 
the  partial  success  of  the  Assyrian  arms  under  the  first  empire, 
and  the  final  triumph  of  the  Assyrian  power  under  the  second 
empire. 

51 


THE    ORIENTAL   WORLD 


ASSYRIAN  WAR  CHARIOT 


The  First  Assyrian  Empire  (1120-745  B.  c.).— The  founder 
of  the  first  Assyrian  empire  was  the  great  warrior  'king  of 
Nineveh,  Tiglath-Pile'ser  I.  (1120  B.  c.),  who  subdued  the  sur- 
rounding cities,  and 
carried  his  arms  to 
the  west  until  after 
many  wars  he  finally 
reached  the  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean. 
That  he  looked  with 
satisfaction  upon  his 
own  achievements  is 
evident  from  his  in- 
scription (now  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum),  in  which  he  calls  himself  "  the 
king  of  kings,  the  lord  of  lords,  the  ever  victorious  hero."  The 
merciless  character  of  Assyrian  war- 
fare is  seen  in  the  career  of  another 
noted  king,  Assur-nazir-pal  (885  B.  c.), 
whom,  in  spite  of  his  fame,  we  may  re- 
gard as  one  of  the  most  cruel  of  con- 
querors. The  lands  which  he  con- 
quered, he  desolated,  ravaging  the 
fields  and  killing  the  people.  In  his 
own  words,  which  have  come  down  to 
us,  we  may  read  his  boasting  of  the 
pyramids  he  has  built  of  human  heads, 
of  the  captives  flayed  alive,  and  of  the 
children  burned  to  death.  The  con- 
quests of  these  early  kings  were  contin- 
ued by  Shalmaneser  II.  (860  B.  c.), 
whose  deeds-  are  recorded  on  the  famous  "  black  obelisk," 
which  he  built.  On  one  side  of  this  obelisk  we  may 
sec  a  procession  of  subjects  bringing  their  gifts  and  trib- 
ute to  the  king.  The  many  wars  of  the  period  were  intended 


ASSUB-NAZIR-PAL 
Relief  in  British  Museum 


ASSYRIA    AND    LATER    BABYLONIA 


53 


to  bring  into  subjection  the  neighboring  countries — especially 

Babylonia  to  the  south,  and  Syria  to  the  west.     But  these 

conquests  were  "not  permanent,  and  the 

first  empire  fell  into  a  state  of  decline. 
The  Second  Assyrian   Empire   (745- 

606  B.  c.). — The  failure  of  the  first  em- 
pire was  due  to  the  lack  of  an  efficient 

mode  of  governing  the  subjects.  When  a 

people  were  once  conquered  and  made 

tributary,  they  were  left  to  themselves; 

and  consequently  they  were  tempted  to 

rise  in  rebellion  against  the  king  when 

he  demanded  further  tribute.   This  pol- 
icy was  changed  by  a  distinguished  king 

who  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 

second  Assyrian  empire — Tiglath-Pileser 

III.  (745  B.  c.).    This  king  adopted  the 

policy  of  organizing  the  conquered  cities 

into  districts,  or  provinces,  each  subject 

to  a  governor  of  his  own  appointment. 

He  also  adopted  the  practice  of  "  depor-        BLACK  OBELISK 

tation  "—that  is,  of  scattering  rebellious    OF  SHALMANESER  II. 

peoples  into  different  parts  of  the  empire,  thus  preventing  any 

united  efforts  at  revolt.    In  accordance  with  this  practice,  the 

next  king,  Sargon  II,  (722  B.  c.), 
when  he  had  conquered  Samaria, 
carried  away  the  "  Ten  Tribes  " 
of  Israel  into  captivity  and  scat- 
tered them  among  the  -towns  of 
Media,  where  they  were  forever 
"  lost  "  as  a  separate  people.  The 
success  which  attended  the  cam- 
paigns of  Sargon  in  Israel  led  his 

successor,  the  more  famous  King  Sennach'erib  (705  B.  c.).  to 

continue  these  expeditions.    He  accordingly  subdued  the  cities 


SEAL  OF  SENNACHERIB 


THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 


of  Phoenicia;  but  his  efforts  against  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
failed,  and  his  armies,  smitten  by  a  pestilence,  were  led  back 
to  Nineveh.  The  last  years  of  this  king  were  devoted  to  wars 
with  Babylonia,  resulting  finally  in  the  total  destruction  of 
the  city  of  Babylon  (688  B.  c.).  The  conquests  of  the  three 
kings  just  mentioned  resulted  in  bringing  nearly  the  whole  of 
western  Asia  under  the  Assyrian  power.  The  completion  of 
the  empire  was  effected  by  the  two  following  kings — Esarhad'- 
don  (681  B.  c.),  who  brought  Egypt  under  his  control,  and  As- 

sur-bani-pal  (668  B.  c.),  who  reduced 
the  rebellious  city  of  Tyre.  Under 
these  two  monarchs  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire reached  its  greatest  extent  and 
its  greatest  glory,  and  became,  in 
fact,  what  we  may  call  the  first  world 
empire.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able monuments  of  this  period  is 
the  Royal  Library  of  Assur-bani-pal, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  first 
great  library  of  the  world.  It  was 
gathered  from  various  conquered 
cities,  a  considerable  part  of  it  being 
plundered  from  Babylon.  It  con- 
tained about  30,000  tablets,  which 
have  been  brought  to  light  in  recent 
years,  and  have  revealed  to  modern 
scholars  the  history  and  civilization  of  a  people  who  flourished 
more  than  twenty-five  centuries  ago. 

Assyria  the  Heir  of  Babylonia. — A  great  part  of  the  civili- 
zation of  the  Assyrians  was  inherited  from  the  early  Babylo- 
nians. It  is  true  that  these  two  peoples  belonged  to  the  same 
race;  yet  they  were  quite  different  in  spirit.  "  The  Babylo- 
nians were-  peaceful  in  disposition,  #iven  to  agriculture,  fond 
of  literatim-,  well  educated  and  comparatively  humane  in  the 
conduct  of  their  wars.  The  Assyrians  cared  little  for  agricul- 


ASSYRIAN  CLAY  TABLET 


ASSYRIA    AND    LATER    BABYLONIA 


ture,  their  wars  were  undertaken  for  plunder  and  were  con- 
ducted with  ferocity."  Still,  many  of  the  arts  of  peace  devel- 
oped by  the  Babylonians  were  taken  up  by  the  Assyrians.  The 
Assyrians,  for  example,  adopted  the  method  of  writing  used  by 
their  older  neighbors,  and  showed  something  of  the  same  taste 
for  literature.  They  acquired  the  same,  if  not  superior,  skill 
in  the  mechanic  arts,  and  adopted  the  same  scientific  ideas. 
Their  religion  was  in  all  essential  matters  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Babylonians;  and  they  generally  adopted  the  same  strict 
methods  in  their  legal  transactions.  The'  advancement  which 
they  made  upon  the  Babylonians  was  principally  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  more  highly  developed  imperial  government,  a  more 
palatial  style  of  architecture,  and  a  greater  appreciation  of 
sculpture  as  a  decorative  art. 

The  Assyrian  Governriient. — The  Assyrians  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  great  people  to  develop 
a  systematic  government  based  upon 
the  imperial  idea.  The  monarch  was 
the  supreme  source  of  all  authority. 
He  was  surrounded  by  a  court  com- 
posed of  officers  of  his  household, 
such  as  the  grand  vizier,  the  royal 
cupbearer,  the  royal  treasurer,  the 
captain  of  the  guards,  etc.  These  of- 
ficers served  the  king  and  executed  his 
commands.  The  provinces  of  the  em- 
pire received  a  definite  organization. 
They  were  divided  into  two  classes — 
those  under  governors,  or  satraps,  ap- 
pointed by  the  king,  and  those  under 
native  rulers  approved  by  the  king 
and  subject  to  him.  The  provinces 
were  all  alike  obliged  to  furnish  trib- 
ute for  the  royal  treasury  and  troops  for  the  royal  army.  Ex- 
cept the  priestly  class,  the  subjects  of  the  king  possessed  a  cer- 


56 


THE    ORIENTAL    WORLfl 


tain  degree  of  equality,  there  being  no  caste  system,  and  no  es- 
tablished aristocracy.  There  was,  however,  a"  class  of  slaves 
composed  of  captives  taken  in  war  and  of  persons  unable  to 
pay  their  debts. 

Assyrian  Architecture;  Royal  Palaces. — The  influence  of 
the  imperial  idea,  and  the  great  dignity  attached  to  the  king, 
are  seen  in  the  character  of  the  Assyrian  architecture.  The 
most  important  buildings  were  not  the  temples,  as  in  Babylo- 
nia, but  the  royal  palaces,  upon  which  the  wealth  of  the 
empire  was  expended.  The  temple  was  merely  accessory  to 
the  palace,  and  was  still  built  in  the  form  of  a  terraced  tower. 


ASSYRIAN  PALACE  AT  NINEVEH  (Restoration) 

But  the  palace  assumed  another  form,  and  was  built  over  an 
extended  area  upon  the  flat  surface  of  an  artificial  hill  or  ele- 
vation overlooking  a  plain  or  river.  Although  this  country 
furnished  stone  suitable  for  building,  the  Assyrians  continued, 
like  the  Babylonians,  to  use  brick  for  architectural  purposes. 
The  royal  palace  consisted  of  a  vast  system  of  courts,  corridors, 
and  galleries.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Assyrians  used  the 
arch  in  sewers,  the  roof  of  the  palace  was  generally  support.-.! 
by  wooden  beams  placed  upon  massive  brick  walls.  Slender 
columns,  made  of  .stone  or  of  wood  covered  with  incial.  \\viv 
often  used  for  ornamental  purposes;  and  these  were  sometimes 
surmounted  with  capitals  of  artistic  designs. 


ASSYRIA    AND    LATER    BABYLONIA 


57 


Assyrian  Sculpture  and  Painting. — The  Assyrians  acquired 
considerable  skill  and  proficiency  in  the  art  of  sculpture.  This 
was  chiefly  employed  in  the  way  of  ornamentation  for  the  royal 
palaces.  The  most  con- 
spicuous, but  not  the  most 
pleasing,  examples  of  As- 
syrian sculpture  are  seen  in 
the  enormous  and  gro- 
tesque figures  which  were 
usually  placed  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  palace.  They 
consisted  of  winged  bulls 
or  lions  with  human  heads, 
—  symbolizing  perhaps 
strength,  swiftness,  and  in- 
telligence,— and  were  sup- 
posed to  guard  the  palace  from  the  intrusion  of  evil  spirits. 
The  highest  examples  of  Assyrian  art  are  seen  in  the  bas- 
reliefs,  cut  on  alabaster  slabs  and  adorning  the  interior  of  the 
royal  palaces.  Here  are  represented  scenes  of  war  and  events 


I 


WINGED  BULL  WITH  HUMAN  HEAD 


ASSYRIAN  BAS-RELIEF 

in  the  life  of  the  king.  In  these  sculptured  reliefs  are 
exhibited  the  best  specimens  of  ancient  drawing  before  the 
time  of  the  Greeks.  From  the  large  number  of  these  reliefs 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 4 


58  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

we  have  obtained  much  of  our  knowledge  of  Assyrian  life  and 
customs.  The  flat  and  strong  colors — often  a  brilliant  ver- 
milion— which  are  placed  upon  the  reliefs  (as  upon  the  Egyp- 
tian bas-reliefs),  show  the  first  steps  in  painting,  which  had  not 
yet  reached  the  dignity  of  an  independent  art. 

II.     THE  LATER  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE 

Recovery  of  the  Empire  by  Babylon. — During  the  suprem- 
acy of  Assyria,  Babylon  remained  in  the  position  of  a  depend- 
ent kingdom;  but  throughout  this  period  she  had  preserved  the 
memory  of  her  former  greatness,  and  frequently  revolted 
against  the  Assyrian  monarch.  But  in  these  attempts  she  was 
doomed  to  failure,  until  she  found  an  ally  in  a  people  living 
east  of  the  Tigris.  This  people  was  the  Medes,  who  had  them- 
selves been  subject  to  Assyria  for  more  than  a  century;  they 
had  now  recovered  their  independence  and  established  an  em- 
pire of  their  own.  With  the  aid  of  the  Medes,  the  Babylonians 
succeeded  in  destroying  Nineveh  and  overthrowing  the  Assyr- 
ian monarchy  (606  B.  c.).  The  dominions  of  Assyria  were  di- 
vided between  the  conquerors, — Media  ruling  the  countries  to 
the  east  of  the  Tigris,  and  Babylon  the  countries  to  the  west. 

Babylon  under  Nebuchadnezzar. — In  this  way  Babylon  re- 
covered her  ancient  power,  and  ruled  with  increased  splendor. 

The  great  king  Nebu- 

T  >*T  H  HT £  T  fc^Y  ^^    chadnez'zar      (605  -  561 

THE  NAME  NEBUCHADNEZZAR  IN        B-  C0   restored  her  fallen 

CUNEIFORM  cities,  and  made  her  for 

a  short  time  the  center 

of  Eastern  civilization.  His  dominions  extended  over  the  \ al- 
ley of  the  Euphrates  and  the  countries  of  Syria  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt  (see  map,  p.  50).  The  Jews  who  refused  to  respect 
his  authority  were  treated  with  severity.  Jerusalem  was  taken 
and  sacked;  and  the  tribes  of  .hxlali  wore  carried  away  into 
captivity.  The  great  king  rebuilt  the  city  of  Babylon,  sur- 


ASSYRIA    AND    LATKIJ     MA1VYLONIA  59 

rounded  it  with  massive  walls,  and  adorned  it  with  sumptuous 
palaces.  To  rival  the  beauties  of  nature  and  to  please  his 
queen,  a  Median  princess,  he  built  the  famous  "  hanging  gar- 
dens," which  were  artificial  hills  built  in  the  form  of  immense 
terraces  and  covered  with  luxuriant  shrubs  and  flowers.  Dur- 
ing this  brief  period  of  her  later  supremacy  Babylon  attained. 
in  the  highest  degree,  all  the  luxury  and  pomp  peculiar  to 
Oriental  civilization.  But  Babylon  the  Great  finally  fell  before 
the  rising  power  of  Persia  (538  B.  c.),  which  absorbed  all  the 
countries  of  western  Asia. 

The  Assyrio-Babylonian  Civilization. — We  have  seen  that 
the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  was  the  seat  of  three  successive  em- 
pires; but  in  their  culture  these  empires  may  be  looked  upon 
as  presenting  three  successive  phases  of  one  and  the  same  civ- 
ilization. The  early  Babylonians  had  developed  a  form  of  re- 
ligion, science,  and  art  which  showed  the  evidence  of  intellec- 
tual growth  and  a  certain  degree  of  refinement.  The  Assyrians 
took  up  the  culture  of  the  Babylonians,  and  impressed  upon 
it  a  political  and  imperial  stamp,  such  as  was  naturally  de- 
rived from  a  great  and  conquering  people.  And  this  imperial 
character  was  transferred  back  to  Babylon  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  later  empire.  So  the  culture  which  was  finally 
developed  in  the  Mesopotamian  valley  was  a  mingling  of  Baby- 
lonian and  Assyrian  elements. 

From  this  brief  review  we  can  see  that  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
valley  was  one  of  the  great  centers  of  ancient  civilization.  By 
its  commercial  and  political  relations  its  culture  was  extended 
to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  religious  ideas 
of  its  people  became  the  common  property  of  the  East;  and 
their  notions  regarding  the  origin  of  the  world  and  the  early 
condition  of  mankind  became  entwined  with  the  Hebrew  ac- 
count of  creation.  Their  progress  in  certain  branches  of  sci- 
ence, especially  in  astronomy,  formed  a  contribution  to  the  in- 
tellectual development  of  the  ancient  world  Their  skill  in 
some  of  the  industrial  arts,  such  as  weaving  and  the  cutting  of 


60  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

intaglios,  has  scarcely  been  equaled  by  modern  nations.  Their 
political  organization  formed  the  basis  of  the  later  imperial 
systems  of  the  East,  which  were  afterward  transferred  to  Eu- 
rope under  the  later  Roman  empire. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  ASSYRIA,  THE  FIRST  WORLD  EMPIRE. — The  Rise  of  Assyria. — 
The    First    Assyrian    Empire. — The    Second    Assyrian     Empire. 
— -Assyria   the    Heir   of    Babylon. — The    Assyrian    Government. — 
Assyrian  Architecture;   Royal  Palaces. — Assyrian  Sculpture  and 
Tainting-. 

II.  THE  LATER  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE. — Recovery  of  the  Empire 
by    Babylon. — Babylon    under    Nebuchadnezzar. — The    Assyrio- 
Babylonian  Civilization. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Murison,  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  Ch.  5,  "Consolidation  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire";  Ch.  14,  "Writing  and  Literature";  Ch.  15, 
"Civilization";  pp.  18-20,  "The  Tel-el-Amarna  Tablets"  (5).1 

Ducoudray,  Ch.  3,  "The  Babj'lonians  and  Assyrians"  (1). 

Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  Ch.  2,  "Babylonia  and  Assyria"  (4). 

Goodspeed,  Part  IT.,  Ch.  f>,  "Early  Conflicts  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria";  Part  III.,  Ch.  5,  "The  Assyrian  Empire  at  its 
Height";  Part  IV.,  Ch.  2,  "Nebuchadrezzar  and  his  Suc- 
cessors" (">). 

Lenormant,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  417-467,  "Civilization,  Manners  and  Monu- 
ments of  Assyria"  (4). 

Boughton,    pp.    493-508,    "  Mesopotamian    Institutions    and    Prog- 
ress" (4). 

Smith,  P.,  Ch.  17,  "The  Cuneiform  Writing  and  Literature"   (4). 

M.ispero,  Life,  Ch.  16,  "Assurbanipal's  Library"   (4). 

Rawlinson,  Monarchies,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  516-520,  553  (the  hanging 
gardens  and  wjills  of  Babylon)  (4). 

Joseph ns.  Antiquities,  Bk.  X.,  Ch.  8  (capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
\(  IHK  l);nlnr//;ir);  Bk.  XL,  Ch.  1  (return  of  the  Hebrews 
from  captivity)  (9). 

Herodotus,  i',k.  L,  Chs.  131-140  (Persian  manners  and  customs); 
Chs.  178-183  (description  of  Babylon);  Chs.  190,  191  (capture 
of  Hiibylnn  by  CJTUS)  (17). 

The  Bible,  II  Rings,  Chs.  is.  10  (Sennacherib  and  Hezekiah); 
Daniel,  Chs.  1-4  (Nebuchadnezzar  and  Daniel);  Ch.  5  (Feast 
of  P.cIsli.-i/./ar). 

'The  flprnrp  In  pnrpnthosls  rofors  to  the  nnmbor  of  the  topic  In  the  Ap- 
pendix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    V 

THE  ARYAN   EMPIRES—MEDIA  AND  PERSIA 
I.     THE  ARYANS  AND  THE  MEDIAN  EMPIRE 

Beginnings  of  Aryan  Civilization. — We  have  thus  far  seen 
the  beginnings  and  growth  of  civilization  among  the  Hamitic 
people  in  Egypt,  and  also 
among  the  Semitic  people 
who  lived  in  the  Tigris-Eu- 
phrates valley  and  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  We  have 
noticed  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  great  empires  estab- 
tablished  by  these  peoples — 
the  early  Babylonian,  the 
Egyptian,  the  Assyrian, 
and  the  later  Babylonian. 
The  time  has  now  come 
when  the  dominion  of  the 
Orient  passes  from  the 
Hamites  and  the  Semites 
into  the  hands  of  Aryan 
peoples,  who  are  henceforth  to  become  the  masters  of  the  civi- 
lized world. 

It  is  true  that  a  part  of  the  Aryan  people  had  already  en- 
tered India,  had  settled  upon  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  the 
Ganges,  and  had  made  some  progress  in  civilization.  These 
Aryans  in  India  were  called  Hindus.  They  had  developed  the 
simple  nature  worship  of  their  ancestors  into  a  highly  philo- 
sophical religion  called  Brahmanism.  This  was  followed  by 

61 


STATUE  OF  THE  HINDU  BUDDHA 


62  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

another  and  simpler  form  of  religion  called  Buddhism, 
founded  by  the  great  religious  reformer  Buddha.  The  Ar- 
yan Hindus  had  also  produced  a  literature  in  the  so-called 
"  Vedas  "  and  in  certain  epic  poems  which  show  strong  feel- 
ing and  imagination.  Finally,  they  had  obtained  some  scien- 
tific ideas  in  astronomy  and  mathematics,  which  indicate  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  intellectual  progress.  But  the  Aryan  Hindus, 
in  spite  of  their  progress  in  certain  directions,  were  still  a  con- 
templative people,  lacking  the  activity  and  vigor  necessary  for 
great  political  achievements;  and  hence  they  exercised  little  in- 
fluence upon  the  general  progress  of  the  East. 

The  Medes  and  the  Persians. — The  first  Aryan  peoples  who 
became  a  real  factor  in  the  progress  of  the  ancient  world  were 
the  Medes  and  the  Persians.  They  were  inspired  with  the  im- 
perial spirit  of  the  East,  and  changed  the  face  of  the  Oriental 
world.  These  two  peoples  were  closely  related  to  each  other, 
although  they  found  homes  in  different  regions.  They  both 
settled  upon  the  western  part  of  the  great  plateau  of  Iran, 
which  lies  between  the  Indus  and  Tigris  rivers;  but  the  home 
of  the  Medes  was  among  the  higher  lands  toward  the  north  and 
west,  while  that  of  the  Persians  was  farther  south  near  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  the  early  periods  of  their  his- 
tory they  had  both  struggled  against  the  aboriginal  peoples  of 
the  plain  and  succeeded  in  establishing  their  dominion.  Of 
these  two  peoples,  the  Medes  were  the  first  to  obtain  promi- 
nence by  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the  Assyrians,  to  whom  they 
had  been  subject.  Fighting  for  existence  against  the  continual 
encroachments  of  Assyria  on  the  west  and  of  the  barbarous 
Scythians  on  the  north,  they  not  only  maintained  their  na- 
tional life,  but  developed  the  military  strength  which  enabled 
them  to  conquer  their  neighbors  and  to  establish  an  empire. 

The  Median  Empire;  Cyaxares. — The  founder,  and  in  fact 
the  only  great  rulor,  of  the  Median  empire  \v;is  (Vax'ares  (<;•>.">- 
585  B.  n.).  He  organized  the  scattered  tribes  of  Die  country 
and  completed  the  work  begun  by  previous  princes.  His  mili- 


MEDIA    AND    PERSIA  63 

tary  ability  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  formed  his  army  into 
regular  divisions,  each  made  up  of -those  who  were  armed  with 
the  same  kind  of  weapons.  He  first  drove  back  the  barbarians 
who  were  pressing  upon  his  kingdom  from  the  north,  and  de- 
livered western  Asia  from  these  invaders.  He  then  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  king  of  Babylonia,  as  the  result  of  which 
Nineveh  was  destroyed  and  the  empire  of  Assyria  was  over- 
thrown (see  p.  58).  While  Nebuchadnezzar  was  ruling  in 
splendor  at  Babylon,  Cyaxares  was  extending  his  dominions. 
He  invaded  Asia  Minor  and  pushed  his  arms  to  the  river 
Halys,  which  became  the  dividing  line  between  his  empire  and 
that  of  Lydia  (see  map,  p.  50).  The  Median  empire,  though 
extensive  in  its  territory,  was  the  shortest-lived  of  all  the  great 
Oriental  monarchies.  Its  chief  significance  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  greater  empire  of  the  Persians. 

II.     PERSIA,  THE  SECOND  WORLD  EMPIRE 

The  East  before  the  Persian  Conquests. — At  the  death  of 
Cyaxares  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  (585  B.  c.), 
there  were  four  principal  nations  of  the  Oriental  world,  which 
we  should  keep  in  mind  if  we  would  understand  the  growth  of 
the  Persian  empire  (maps,  pp.  50,  66).  These  were:  (1)  the 
Median  empire,  which  had  been  built  up  by  the  prince  Cyax- 
ares,  and  which  extended  to  the  Halys  River  on  the  west,  to  the 
Caspian  Sea  on  the  north,  to  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south, 
and  to  an  indefinite  boundary  line  on  the  east  toward  the  Indus 
River;  (2)  the  Later  Babylonian  empire,  which,  with  the  aid 
of  the  Medes,  had  been  formed  from  the  dissolution  of  the 
empire  of  Assyria,  and  which  extended  from  the  Tigris  River 
to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean;  (3)  the  Lydian  empire, 
which  covered  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Halys 
River  almost  to  the  ^Egean  Sea,  on  the  coasts  of  which  had 
grown  up  a  number  of  Greek  cities;  and  (4)  Egypt,  which  had 
recovered  its  independence  under  Psammetichus  and  occu- 


THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 


pied  its  original  territory  il  ttye  valley  of  the  Nile.  We. 
are  now  to  see  how  these  different  countries  became  absorbed 
into  the  one  great  world  empire  of  Persia. 

Kise  of  Persia  under  Cyjus  (558-529  B.  c.).— Persia  had 
been  a  small  province  of  the  Median  empire  situated  on  the 
Persian  Gulf.  About  the  middle!  of  the  sixth  century  B.  c. 

a  prince,  whom  we  know  as 
Cyrus  the  Great,  revolted  from 
Media  and  succeeded  in  redu- 
cing that  state  to  his  own  au- 
thority. Many  stories  are  told 
about  the  birth  and  early  life 
of  this  great  man;  but  they 
are  largely  mythical,  and  need 
not  be  rehearsed.  His  chief 
significance  for  us  is  in  the  fact 
that  he  created  the  most  pow- 
erful empire  that  the  world 
had  yet  seen,  and  established 
a  policy  which  was  destined  to 
bring  Asia  into  conflict  with 
Europe.  The  growth  of  this 
empire  resulted  from  the  con- 
quests made  by  three  kings — 
Cyrus,  its  founder,  and  his  suc- 
cessors, Camby'ses  and  Dari'us. 
Conquest  of  Lydia. — With  the  overthrow  of  the  Median  em- 
pire, Cyrus  proceeded  to  extend  his  kingdom  to  the  west.  This 
required  the  conquest  of  Babylonia  west  of  the  Tigris,  and  of 
Lydia  west  of  the  Halys  River.  Lydia  was  especially  alive  to 
the  dangers  of  Persian  aggression.  Her  energetic  king,  Crcesus, 
who  had  now  under  his  control  all  of  Asia  Minor  west  of  the 
Halys,  assumed  the  part  of  defender  of  western  Asia.  He  is 
said  to  have  consulted  the  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  (p.  130), 
and  to  have  received  the  response  that "  if  he  crossed  the  Halys 


BAB-RELIEF  OF  Cvurs 


MEDIA    AND   PEKSIA  65 

he  would  destroy  a  great  empire."  Not  tli inking  that  this 
might  apply  to  his  own  empire1,  as  well  as  lo  that  of  Cyrus,  he 
crossed  the  river,  and  after  an  indecisive  battle  retreated  into 
his  own  territory.  Without  delay  Cyrus  invaded  Lydia  and 
captured  Sardis.  Asia  Minor  now  became  a  part  of  the  Per- 
sian empire. 

Conquest  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt. — After  the  conquest  of 
Lydia  Cyrus  turned  his  attention  to  his  next  great  rival,  Baby- 
lonia. With  the  fall  of  Babylon  (538  B.  c.),  this  empire  also 
became  a  part  of  his  dominions.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  Cyrus 
that  he  permitted  the  Jews,  who  had  been  held  in  captivity 
since  the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (see  page  47),  to  return  to 
their  home  in  Jerusalem.  After  the  death  of  Cyrus,  his  son 
Cambyses  (529-522  B.  c.)  extended  the  Persian  authority  over 
Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt.  But  an  army  sent  into  Ethi- 
opia perished  in  the  sands  of  the  desert;  and  an  expedition 
planned  against  Carthage  failed,  because  the  Phoenician 
sailors  refused  to  serve  against  their  kinsfolk.  The  rule  of 
Cambyses  was  oppressive  and  often  cruel,  and  was  marked  by 
frequent  revolts  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 

Conquests  in  Europe  under  Darius. — The  insurrections 
which  attended  the  death  of  Cambyses  were  quelled  by  Darius 
(521-484  B.  c.),  who  was,  next  to  Cyrus,  the  greatest  king  of 
Persia.  He  has  a  special  interest  for  us,  because  he  was  the 
first  to  extend  the  Persian  authority  into  Europe — which  fact 
paved  the  way  for  the  subsequent  invasion  of  Greece.  The  pur- 
pose of  Darius  in  entering  Europe  was,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, to  send  an  expedition  against  the  barbarous  Scythians. 
So  far  as  the  Scythians  were  concerned,  this  expedition  proved 
a  failure.  But  on  his  return  to  Asia,  Darius  left  in  Europe 
an  army  which  subdued  Thrace  and  the  Greek  cities  to  the 
north  of  the  JEgean  Sea,  and  even  compelled  Macedonia  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  great  king.  The  Persian 
empire  was  thus  extended  into  Europe  to  the  boundary  of 
Greece  itself. 


i  MAP  ^o.  G 


GC 


MEDIA    AND   PERSIA  07 

The  subsequent  history  of  Persia  was  closely  related  to  that 
of  Greece,  which  had  by  this  time  developed  a  distinct  civiliza- 
tion of  its  own  and  had  become  the  center  of  a  new  world  cul- 
ture. We  shall  hereafter  see  how  Persia  came  into  conflict 
with  the  Greek  states,  and  how  it  was  finally  overthrown  by 
Alexander  the  Great  (331  B.  c.). 

III.     THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERSIA 

Political  Organization  of  the  Empire. — In  its  geographical 
extent  Persia  surpassed  all  the  previous  empires  of  the  East. 
It  not  only  covered  all  the  lands  hitherto  occupied  by  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  Media,  Lydia,  and  Egypt,  but  added  to  them  other 
territory  not  included  in  these  older  empires.  It  extended  from 
the  Indus  River  to  the  ^Egean  Sea,  a  distance  of  about  three 
thousand  miles.  It  comprised,  in  fact,  the  whole  civilized 
world  except  India  and  China  in  the  Far  East,  and  Greece  and 
Carthage  in  the  West. 

The  form  of  government  established  over  this  vast  domain 
was  patterned  after  that  of  the  Assyrians,  but  strengthened 
and  perfected  by  the  genius  of  Darius.  For  the  purposes  of 
administration  the  territory  was  divided  into  a  number  of 
provinces,  or  "  satrapies,"  each  under  a  provincial  governor,  or 
satrap,  appointed  by  the  king.  The  provinces  were  divided 
into  districts,  each  under  a  deputy  of  the  satrap.  The  prov- 
inces were  subject  to  the  satraps,  and  the  satraps  were  subject 
to  the  king.  The  duties  of  the  provincial  subjects  were  to  fur- 
nish men  for  the  royal  army,  ships  for  the  royal  navy,  and 
money  for  the  royal  treasury.  The  provinces  were  joined  to 
the  capital,  Susa,  by  military  roads,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  the  great  royal  road  from  Susa  to  Sardis,  fifteen 
hundred  miles  long.  The  person  of  the  king  was  exalted  above 
that  of  other  men.  He  sat  upon  a  throne  made  of  gold,  silver, 
and  ivory.  His  garments  were  of  richest  silk.  To  serve  him 
was  the  highest  mark  of  nobility.  To  minister  to  his  comfort. 


THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 


one  dignitary  was  chosen  to  carry  the  royal  parasol,  another 
the  royal  fan,  while  other  officers  were  appointed  to  perform 

other  equally  honorable  duties. 
Persian  Army  and  Navy.  — 
The  chief  support  of  the  royal 
authority  was  the  army  drawn 
from  the  different  provinces. 
When  called  together,  it  was 
marshaled  by  nations,  each  with 
its  own  costume  and  subject  to 
royal  officers.  The  footmen  were 
armed  with  the  sword,  the  spear, 
and  their  favorite  weapon,  the 
bow,  in  the  use  of  which  they 


THE  PERSIAN  KING 
(with  attendants) 


an  important  branch  of  the 
army,  and  was  very  effective 
when  fighting  upon  an  open 
plain.  The  choicest  part  of  the 
Persian  army  was  the  "  Ten 
Thousand  Immortals,"  so  called 
because  their  numbers  were  per- 
petually maintained.  On  the  sea 
the  Persians  were  able  to  gather 
from  their  subjects  a  large  num- 
ber of  ships,  mostly  triremes  (ships  witli  three  banks  of  oars) 
armed  with  iron  prows.  With  such  an  army  and  navy  the  Per- 
sians had  already  conquered  Asia,  and  hoped  to  conquer  Greece 
and  Europe. 

Persian  Art  and  Literature,  —  As  the  Persians  were  chiefly 
a  conquering  and  ruling  people,  they  were  not  distinguished 
for  their  intellectual  achievements.  Whatever  art  they  pos- 
sessed was  mostly  a  mere  reproduction  of  that  of  Assyria  and 
T.nl.vlon.  Tln-ir  architecture  and  sculpture,  as  seen  in  the 
ruins  at  Persep'olis  and  other  places,  show  no  evidences  of 


MEDIA    AND   PERSIA  69 

marked  originality.  While  using  an  Aryan  spm-h,  the  Persians 
adopted  for  writing  the  wedge-shaped  characters  of  their  pred- 
ecessors. They  made  no  contributions  to  science;  and  for 
many  generations  they  possessed  no  literature  worthy  of  notice 
except  the  "Aves'ta,"  which  was  the  Persian  Bible. 

Persian  Religion  and  Morality. — The  most  distinctive  fea- 
ture of  the  Persian  civilization  was  its  religion.  The  religion 
of  Persia  was  doubtless  an  outgrowth  of  a  lower  polytheistic 
nature  worship;  but  it  seems  to  have  reached  its  highest  de- 


RUINS  OF  PERSEPOLIS 

velopment  under  the  influence  of  Zoroas'ter.  This  religious 
reformer  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Bactria  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century  B.  c.  Some  scholars  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  his  name  stands  merely  for  a  mythical  person; 
while  others  strongly  assert  that  "  we  must  accept  the  histori- 
cal reality  of  Zoroaster  "  (Sayce).  He  considered  the  powers  of 
nature  as  separated  into  the  powers  of  light  and  the  powers  of 
darkness — the  one  under  the  control  of  the  great  god  of  light 
(Ormuzd),  who  is  the  creator  of  all  that  is  good;  and  the  other 
under  the  control  of  the  god  of  darkness  (Ah'riman).,  who  is  the 
father  of  all  that  is  evil.  This  is  a  system  of  religion  which 
we  call  Dualism.  The  whole  universe  is  looked  upon  as 


70  THE    ORIENTAL   WORLD 

a  struggle  between  light  and  darkness,  between  the  good  and 
the  evil,  in  other  words,  between  Onnuzd  [  and  Ahrimau. 
Human  life  in  the  same  way  is  regarded  as  a  perpetual  strug- 
gle between  good  and  evil;  and  the  duty  of  man  is  to  cleave  to 
that  which  is  good  and  to  shun  that  which  is  evil.  Morality 
was  closely  related  to  religion.  The  Persians  believed  in  truth- 
fulness as  a  high  moral  virtue,  and  despised  lying  and  deceit. 
The  higher  elements  of  the  Persian  religion  were  corrupted 
under  the  influence  of  a  priestly  class,  the  Magi,  who  were  in- 
clined to  worship  the  symbol  of  fire  in  place  of  the  god  of  light, 
and  to  regard  the  performance  of  religious  rites  and  ceremonies 
as  the  chief  duty  of  life. 

Historical  Significance  of  Persia. — The  Persian  empire  rep- 
resents the  highest  unity  attained  by  the  ancient  Oriental  world 
before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Of  all  the  great  mon- 
archies hitherto  established — the  early  Babylonian,  the  Egyp- 
tian, the  Assyrian,  the  Median,  and  the  later  Babylonian — no 
one  except  Assyria  can  be  regarded  as  properly  a  "  world  em- 
pire." Persia  carried  to  a  still  higher  stage  of  development  the 
military  and  political  system  of  Assyria.  Although  she  made 
no  contributions  to  the  finer  arts  of  life,  she  surpassed  all  her 
predecessors  as  a  conquering  and  ruling  power.  She  is,  on  this 
account,  the  prototype  in  Asia  of  Eome  in  Europe.  She  with- 
stood the  rude  barbarians  of  the  north — the  Scythians— in 
their  inroads  into  the  civilized  south.  She  developed  a  more 
permanent  system  of  provincial  government  than  had  before 
existed — which  furnished  the  model  of  that  of  the  later  Roman 
empire.  Her  religion  was  perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to 
Jewish  monotheism  of  all  the  religions  of  western  Asia.  But 
with  all  her  achievements  she  represented  an  old  and  decaying 
civilization,  which  appears  in  its  true  light  when  we  see  it 
brought  into  contact,  and  placed  in  contrast  with  the  new  and 
growing  civilization  of  Greece. 

1  The  upper   part   of  the   picture   on   page  68   shows  the   aymhol   of 
Ormuzd,  copied  from  the  Assyrian  god  Assur. 


MEDIA    AND   PEKSIA  71 

IV.     EEVIEW  OF  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 

The  Beginnings  of  Civilization. — In  reviewing  the  history 
of  the  Oriental  world  there  are  certain  general  facts  which 
should  be  impressed  upon  our  minds.  In  the  first  place,  we 
see  that  it  is  from  the  Orient  that  the  world  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  its  civilization.  It  is  here  that  men  first  passed  out 
of  the  tribal  state  and  developed  a  higher  form  of  government, 
by  the  erection  of  cities,  kingdoms,  and  great  empires.  It  is 
here,  also,  that  we  see  the  early  development  of  religion,  which 
passed  from  crude  forms  of  animal  or  ancestral  worship  to  a 
polytheistic  nature  worship  and  finally  to  a  monotheistic  re- 
ligion, like  that  of  the  Hebrews.  We  also  find  here  a  great 
advancement  in  man's  economic  life,  which  began  with  hunting 
and  fishing  or  the  tending  of  flocks  and  herds,  and  passed  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  growth  of  manufactures,  and  the 
development  of  commerce.  Moreover,  the  people  of  the  Orient 
gave  to  the  world  the  rudiments  of  some  of  the  important  sci- 
ences, especially  astronomy  and  mathematics.  Still  further,  we 
see  a  remarkable  progress  made  in  the  art  of  writing,  which 
began  with  the  expression  of  ideas  in  the  form  of  pictures,  then 
advancing  to  the  use  of  symbolic  signs,  and  at  last  to  the 
use  of  a  phonetic  alphabet  such  as  we  use  to-day.  Finally 
these  ancient  peoples  acquired  great  ability,  if  not  taste,  in  the 
art  of  building,  beginning  with  huts  made  of  sticks  or  clay, 
and  passing  to  the  use  of  brick  among  the  Babylonians,  and 
stone  among  the  Egyptians.  So  thoroughly  were  they  ac- 
quainted with  the  principles  of  architecture  that  many  of  their 
buildings  have  remained  to  the  present  time  as  monuments  of 
their  skill  and  as  permanent  evidences  of  that  early  civilization 
which  we  have  inherited  from  the  East. 

The  Course  of  Oriental  History. — Our  review  of  the  Orien- 
tal world  will  enable  us  to  distinguish  certain  periods,  or  suc- 
cessive stages,  which  mark  the  course  of  its  historical  develop- 
ment. We  may  briefly  characterize  these  periods  as  follows: 


72  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

(1)  During  the  first  period  the  rudiments  of  civilization  ap- 
peared in  two  separate  and  independent  centers,  —  Babylonia 
and  Egypt,  —  each  having  a  peculiar  culture  of  its  own,  and 
each  being  unaffected,  so  far  as  we  know,  by  any  influences  de- 
rived from  the  other  (about  5000-3800  B.  c.).1 

(2)  The  second  period  is  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  ascend- 
ency, when  Babylonia  extended  its  authority  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast,  and  its  culture  to  the  lands  of  Syria  (about  3800- 
1600  B.  c.). 

(3)  Then  followed  the  period  of  the  Egyptian  ascendency, 
when  the  authority  of  Egypt  superseded  that  of  Babylonia  in 
the  Syrian  lands  and  the  Egyptian  culture  became  extended 
to  this  territory  (about  1600-1100  B.  c.). 

(4)  With  the  decline  of  the  Egyptian  power,  we  come  to  the 
period  of  Syrian  independence,  which  continued  for  two  cen- 
turies, during  which  time  the  influence  of  Phoenicia  became 
predominant  over  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  and  the  Hebrew 
kingdom  reached  its  height  under  David  and  Solomon  (about 
1100-900  B.  c.). 

(5)  This  was  followed  by  the  ascendency  of  Assyria  as  the 
first  world  empire,  bringing  under  its  control  all  the  previously 
mentioned  countries  of  the  East,  —  Babylonia,  Egypt,  Phoenicia, 
and  Judea,  —  the  period  of  the  Assyrian  ascendency  closing  with 
the  independence  of  Egypt  and  the  division  of  the  remaining 
territory  between  the  short-lived  empires  of  later  Babylonia 
and  Media  (about  900-550  B.  c.). 

(('))  Lastly  appeared  the  second  great  world  empire  of  Persia, 
which  consolidated  under  one  supreme  authority  all  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Orient  west  of  the  Indus,  comprising  not  only  tin- 
nations  already  noticed,  but  also  the  country  of  the  Hittites 
and  Lydia  in  A-ia  Minor  (about  .Vd  )-:>:>  1  B.  c.). 

The  Blending  of  Culture  by  Conquest  and  Commerce.  —  In 
connection  with  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  difTeivnt  Oriental  na- 


d.it,<  are  «mly  approximate,  and  are  substantially  those  adopted 
by  Professor  Goodspeed. 


REVIEW  OF   ORIENTAL  NATIONS  73 

tions  it  is  important  to  notice  the  fact  that  the  culture  of  dif- 
ferent countries  became  blended  by  means  of  conquests.  For 
example,  the  successive  conquests  of  Syria  by  Babylonia  and 
Egypt  led  to  that  composite  form  of  culture  which  marked  the 
Phoenicians,  preserving  both  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  fea- 
tures, as  seen  in  the  Syrian  religion  and  industrial  arts.  So  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  Assyria  did  not  destroy  the  existing  civ- 
ilization of  Egypt,  but  rather  brought  the  civilization  of  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  valley  into  relation  with  that  of  the  valley  of 
the  Nile.  And  by  the  extensive  conquests  of  Persia  the  various 
centers  of  culture  throughout  the  Orient  were  brought  into 
communication  with  one  another.  Again,  the  civilizations  of 
different  peoples  became  mingled  by  means  of  commercial  in- 
tercourse. Commerce  tended  to  bring  about  the  exchange  not 
only  of  the  products,  but  of  the  ideas  of  various  peoples.  This 
we  have  seen  in  the  case  of  the  Phoenicians,  who  became  the 
common  carriers  not  only  of  commodities  but  also  of  culture. 
Hence,  by  means  of  conquests  and  commerce,  the  different  peo- 
ples of  the  Orient  were  brought  together;  and  their  civilizations 
became  blended  into  a  composite  culture,  which  we  may  char- 
acterize in  general  as  Oriental. 

Transmission  of  Oriental  Culture  to  the  West. — The  cul- 
ture of  the  Eastern  world  was  destined  to  overflow  the  bound- 
aries of  the  Orient  and  to  find  its  way  into  the  Occident. 
There  were  two  principal  means  of  communication  between  the 
East  and  the  West:  the  one  was  by  the  sea  traffic  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians, the  other  was  by  the  land  traffic  of  the  peoples  of  Asia 
Minor.  We  can  readily  see  how  the  Phoenicians,  through  their 
commerce  ai.d  colonies,  brought  the  culture  of  Asia  to  the  ports 
of  Europe.  The  peoples  of  Asia  Minor  who  furnished  some 
means  of  communication  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
were  the  Hittites  and  the  Lydians  (map,  p.  50).  Concern- 
ing the  Hittites  little  is  definitely  known :  but  that  they  at 
one  time  formed  a  powerful  and  influential  nation,  seems  quite 
certain.  They  are  said  to  have  done  much  for  civilization  by 


74  THE    ORIENTAL    WORLD 

taking  up  the  arts  and  culture  of  Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Phoeni- 
cia, and  passing  them  on  to  their  western  neighbors.  The 
Lydians  lived  on  the  western  frontiers  of  the  Orient  and  joined 
hands  with  the  Greeks  on  the  /Egean  Sea.  It  is  believed  that 
they  received  much  of  the  culture  of  the  East,  not  only  through 
the  Phoenicians,  but  also  through  their  neighbors  the  Hittites. 
If  this  is  so,  we  may  conclude  that  the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor, 
as  well  as  the  Phoenicians,  furnished  a  means  for  the  trans- 
mission of  the  ancient  culture  of  the  East  to  the  West. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE    ARYANS    AND    THE    MEDIAN    EMPIRE. — Beginnings    of 
Aryan  Civilization. — The  Medes  and  the  Persians. — The  Median 
Empire;  Cyaxares. 

II.  PERSIA,  THE  SECOND  WORLD  EMPIRE. — The  East  before  the 
Persian   Conquests. — Rise  of   Persia   under   Cyrus. — Conquest   of 
Lydia. — Conquest     of     Babylonia     and     Egypt. — Conquests     in 
Europe  under  Darius. 

III.  THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERSIA. — Political 
Organization  of  the  Empire. — Persian  Army  and  Navy. — Persian 
Art  and  Literature. — Persian  Religion  and  Morality. — Historical 
Si^Tiificance  of  Persia. 

IV.  REVIEW  OF  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. — The  Beginnings  of  Civi- 
lization.— The  Course  of  Oriental  History. — The  Blending  of  Cul- 
ture   by    Conquest    and    Commerce. — Transmission    of    Oriental 
Culture  to  the  West. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Ducoudray,  Ch.  6,  "Civilization  of  the  Aryans,  Hindoos  and 
Persians"  (I).1 

Lenormant,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  V.,  "The  Medes  and  the  Persians"  (4). 

Benjamin,  Ch.  7,  "Cyrus";  Ch.  8,  "From  Cyrus  to  Darius"   (8). 

Van'x,  Ch.  1,  "Cyrus,  Cambyses  and  Darius";  Ch.  4,  "Monuments 
of  Persia"  (8). 

Clarke,  Ch.  5,  "Zoroaster  and  the  Zend-Vesta"  (3). 

Smittar,  pp.  145-190,  "Medes  and  Persians"  (1). 

I'.urv.  Ch.  6,  "Advance  of  the  Persians  to  the  ^Egean"   (10). 

C&r,  History,  Bk.  II.,  Chs.  1,  2,  "The  Persian  Empire"  (10). 

Smith,  P.,  Ch.  28,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Persian  Empire"  (4). 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Art.  "Hittites"  (the  "Forgotten  Em- 
pire*); \n.  "Lydia"  (for  coinage  of  Lydia). 

H.-rndniiis.  P,k.  I.,  Chs.  131-140  (Persian  manners  and  customs); 
Bk.  IV.,  Chs.  1-8,  28-100  (the  Scythians)  (17). 

'The  figure  In  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE  GREEK  WORLD 

PERIOD  I.    THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE  (-776  B,  0.) 
CHAPTER    VI 

GREECE,  ITS  ^PEOPLE  AND  EARLY  LEGENDS 
I.     HELLAS,  THE  LAND  OF  THE  GREEKS 

Greece  and  the  Orient. — As  we  approach  the  study  of 
Greece  we  must  first  of  all  notice  the  close  relation  of  this 
land  to  the  Oriental  countries  which  we  have  already  consid- 
ered. Of  the  three  peninsulas  of  Europe  which  project  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  Greece  lies  nearest  to  the  East.  Hence 
it  would  naturally  be  the  first  of  European  countries  to  feel 
the  influence  of  Oriental  culture  and  the  first  to  develop  a  civ- 
ilization of  its  own.  The  ^Egean  Sea,  which  lies  between  its 
coasts  and  those  of  Asia  Minor,  can  be  regarded  not  as  a  bar- 
rier, but  rather  as  a  highway  uniting  the  East  and  the  West. 
The  numerous  islands  scattered  over  this  sea  aided  the  early 
mariners  to  find  their  way  across  its  waters;  so  that  these 
islands  have  been  aptly  called  the  "  stepping  stones  "  of  the 
^Egean.  Greece  was  also  open  to  the  early  commerce  of 
the  Phoenicians,  who  had  obtained  a  foothold  upon  some  of  the 
^Egean  islands.  Since  the  culture  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt  had 
been  taken  up  by  Phoenicia  and  the  countries  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  drift  of  Oriental  civilization  was  in  the  direction  of  the 
Grecian  peninsula.  For  these  reasons  we  may  see  that  Greece 

MORBY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. 5  75 


THE    GKEEK   WORLD 


was  in  a  certain  sense  the  heir  of  the  Orient,  receiving  in  some 
degree  the  stimulating  influence  of  Eastern  culture. 

Geographical  Features  of  Greece. — The  Grecian  peninsula 
presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  great  countries  of  the  East, 
with  their  broad  plains  and  fertile  valleys.  Greece  was  a  very 


M  E  D  I    TERR  A\:*N  E  A   N         SEA      •    ' 


0       20      40      W      90 


HELLAS:   THE  ^GEAN  LANDS 
Routes  across  the  ^Egean  Sea 

•* 

.small  country  (smaller  than  the  present  state  of  Florida). 
Its  surface  is  broken  by  mountain  ranges  and  small  valleys, 
and  drained  by  innumerable  small  streams.  The  outlines  of 
the  country  are  as  irregular  and  diversified  as  its  surface. 
There  is  no  other  country  of  the  world  <>f  the  same  area  with 
such  an  extensive  and  irregular  coast  line.  It  has  been  called 


GREECE,   ITS   PEOPLE   AND  EAHLY    LK(JKNDS         77 

"  the  most  European  of  European  countries."  It  is  said  that 
there  is  no  point  in  Greece  more  than  forty  miles  from  the 
coast.  The  many  bays,  gulfs,  and  inlets  which  indent  its 
shores  form  the  navigable  waters  of  Greece.  The  climate  is 
generally  mild  and  temperate,  but  changeable  with  the  seasons 
and  also  quite  different  in  different  localities.  The  soil  is 
not  very  fertile;  but  under  ordinary  cultivation,  it  produced 
in  ancient  times  wheat,  barley,  flax,  wine,  and  oil.  The  trees 
vary  from  the  pine  and  oak  forests  in  the  north  to  the  lemons, 
oranges,  and  date  palms  in  the  south. 

The  geographical  features  of  Greece  exercised  an  important 
influence  upon  the  character  of  the  people  and  upon  their  his- 
tory. The  face  of  nature,  with  its  brilliant  skies  and  beau- 
tiful landscapes,  tended  to  give  the  people  a  cheerful  temper 
and  a  fine  aesthetic  taste.  The  broken  relief  of  the  country 
separated  the  people  into  distinct  communities,  and  led  to  the 
growth  of  many  small  states  and  to  the  development  of  a  spirit 
of  freedom  and  local  independence.  Moreover,  the  irregular 
coast  line  furnished  an  opportunity  for  ports  and  harbors,  and 
thus  promoted  the  commercial  spirit  of  the  people.  As  the 
bays  and  gulfs  lay  mostly  upon  the  eastern  coast,  Greece  may 
be  said  to  have  "  faced  "  toward  the  Orient,  and  thus  to  have 
been  fitted  by  nature  to  receive  the  gifts  of  her  more  civilized 
neighbors. 

Divisions  of  Greece. — To  obtain  a  more  definite  idea  of  the 
peninsula  of  Greece  and  of  its  most  noted  places,  we  may 
glance  at  its  principal  divisions. 

(1)  Northern  Greece  is  separated  from  the  main  part  of  Eu- 
rope by  the  Cambu'nian  Mountains.  It  comprised  two  prov- 
inces, Epi'rus  and  Thes'saly,  divided  by  the  range  of  the  Pin- 
dus.  The  most  famous  spot  in  Epirus  was  Doclo'na,  where 
was  located  an  ancient  oracle  of  Zeus.  Thessaly,  to  the  east  of 
the  Pindus,  was  a  fertile  plain,  drained  by  the  river  Pene'us; 
this  stream  flows  through  the  beautiful  vale  of  Tempe  into  the 
Sea.  To  the  north  rises  Mt.  Olym'pus,*  the  highest 


78 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


peak  in  Greece  (nearly  10,000  feet),  upon  whose  summit  the 
gods  were  supposed  to  dwell. 

(2)  Central  Greece  comprised  a  number  of  states  of  varied 
historical  interest.  Toward  the  west  were  the  two  provinces  of 
Acarna'nia  and  of  ^Eto'lia.  In  the  middle  of  central  Greece 
were  several  small  provinces  separated  from  one  another  by 


6       10     20      30     40      50 


CENTRAL  GREECE  AND  THE   PELOPONNESUS 

mountain  barriers.  Of  these  Phocis  claimed  the  highest 
renown,  for  it  contained  the  celebrated  oracle  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  near  which  rose  the  mount  of  Parnas'sus,  the  favorite 
haunt  of  the  Muses.  In  the  eastern  part  of  central  Greece 
were  the  three  provinces  of  Boeo'tia,  At'tica,  and  Meg'aris. 
Bceoti a  contained  the  cities  of  On-homVnus  ;m<l  Tln-hrs.  one  of 
which  was  an  early  seat  of  civilization,  and  the  other  took  an 


GREECE,   ITS   PEOPLE   AND  EARLY   LEGENDS         79 

active  part  in  later  Greek  politics.  East  of  Bceotia  lay  the 
triangular  province  of  Attica,  the  most  noted  country  of  Hellas. 
Its  most  famous  point  was  the  Acrop'olis,  about  which  grew  up 
the  city  of  Athens,  the  most  cultivated  spot  of  the  world. 
Other  heights  were  the  Pentel'icus,  famous  for  its  marble,  and 
Hymet'tus,  noted  for  its  honey.  The  soil  of  Attica  is  not  well 
suited  for  agriculture.  The  people  of  the  rural  districts  were 
therefore  compelled  to  live  mostly  upon  their  flocks  and  herds, 
while  those  near  the  sea  engaged  in  commerce. 

(3)  Southern  Greece  received  the  name  of  the  Peloponne'sus, 
or  the  "Isle  of  Pelops."     It  is  separated  from  the  rest  of 
Greece  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  and  the  Saron'ic  Gulf,  having 
as  a  bond  of  union  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth.    The  cen- 
tral country  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  Arca'dia;  .this  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  mountains,  the  only  country  of  Greece 
(with  the  exception  of  Doris)  without  a  seaboard.     To  the 
west  and  north  of  Arcadia  were  the  three  provinces  of  Elis, 
Acha'ia,  and  Corin'thia.     The  most  famous  locality  in  these 
states   was   Olym'pia   in   Elis,  the   seat   of  the   "  Olympian 
games."     Finally,  to  the  east  and  south  of  Arcadia  were  also 
three  provinces — Ar'golis,  Laco'nia,  and  Messe'nia.     Argolis 
was  distinguished  for  the  prehistoric  cities  of  Myce'nae  and 
Ti'ryns,  and  the  historic  city  of  Argos.    Laconia  was  the  home 
of  the  Spartans,  who  became  the  ruling  power  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, conquering  Messenia  and  other  states,  and  whose  chief 
city,  Sparta,  became  the  greatest  rival  of  Athens. 

(4)  The  Islands  of  Greece  are  also  worthy  of  notice.    The 
largest  of  these  was  the  island  of  Euboe'a,  which  stretches  along 
the  eastern  coast  from  Thessaly  to  Attica,  and  contained  the 
historic  cities  of  Chalcis  and  Ere'tria.    In  the  Saronic  Gulf  are 
the  islands  of  Sal'amis  and  ^Egi'na,  the  former  of  which  gave 
the  name  to  a  decisive  naval  battle  between  the  Greeks  and  the 
Persians.    Off  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  a 
group  of  islands  called  the  Cyc'lades  (map,  p.  76),  the  most 
noted  of  the  group  being  the  tiny  island  of  Delos,  the  seat  of  a 


80  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

celebrated  shrine  of  Apollo.  The  most  important  island  off 
the  southern  coast  was  Crete,  which  was  a  center  of  the  oldest 
civilization  of  the  ^Egean. 

Greater  Hellas. — The  home  of  the  Greeks,  which  they  called 
Hellas,  was  not  confined  to  the  European  peninsula  and  the 
neighboring  islands.  It  included  also  the  western  coasts  of 
Asia  Minor.  These  coasts  were  from  very  early  times  occupied 
by  a  Greek  people,  and  afterward  received  emigrants  from  the 
European  peninsula.  This  part  of  the  Greek  world,  which  we 
may  call  "  Asiatic  Greece,"  comprised  three  divisions,  named 
respectively  from  the  north  to  the  south  ^Eo'lia,  lo'nia,  and 
Doris  (see  map,  p.  94).  Besides  these  Asiatic  lands,  Hellas, 
in  the  larger  sense,  came  to  include  other  lands,  which  we  may 
call  "  Western  Greece."  These  comprised  the  eastern  and 
southern  part  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  as  well  as  certain  terri- 
tory in  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  known  as  "  Magna  GraBcia." 
In  fact,  by  the  word  Hellas  the  Greeks  meant  all  the  lands 
inhabited  by  the  Greek  people — the  Helle'nes,  as  they  called 
themselves — and  these  lands  were  continually  widening  with 
the  growth  of  Greek  commerce  and  colonization. 

II.    THE  HELLENES,  THE  PEOPLE  OF  GREECE 

The  Earliest  Inhabitants  of  Greece. — It  would  be  interest- 
ing to  know  precisely  when,  and  how,  and  by  whom  all  these 
lands  about  the  ^Egean  were  first  settled.  But  this  is  a  sub- 
ject concerning  which  we  have  no  very  extensive  or  definite 
knowledge.  What  we  do  know  is  that  the  dominant  people 
who  inhabited  Greece  in  historical  times,  were  people  who 
spoke  an  Aryan,  or  Indo-European,  language.  But  it  is  very 
likely  that,  before  the  Aryan  settlements,  the  ^Egean  lands 
were  already  inhabited  by  an  older  people.  We  have  left  to 
us  the  names  of  some  very  ancient  tribes  which  were  probably 
pre- Aryan.  Chief  aiiioni:  llicse  were  the  people  whom  tin1 
Greeks  called  the  "  Pelasgians,"  about  whom  much  has  been 


GREECE,    ITS    I'KOI'U:    AM)    EAULY     LEGENDS        81 

written  and  little  is  known.  Their  name  is  found  on  both 
sides  of  the  ^Egean — in  Asia  Minor,  where  they  are  said  to 
have  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans;  in  Attica,  where  they 
were  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  ancestors  of  the 
Athe'nian  people;  and  in  Epirus,  where  they  possessed  at  Do- 
dona  an  altar  to  Zeus.  To  this  people  are  attributed  the  mass- 
ive stone  walls  found  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  and  often 
described  as  "  Cyclope'an." 

The  Coming  of  the  Hellenes, — Whatever  we  may  think  con- 
cerning the  primitive  people  of  Greece,  we  may  be  confident 
that  the  Hellenes,  the 
Greeks  in  whom  we  are 
especially  interested,  and 
who  created  the  civiliza- 
tion which  we  have  in- 

ANCIENT  "CYCLOPEAN"  WALL 
herited,  spoke  a  language 

which  belonged  to  the  same  family  (Aryan)  as  that  to  which 
our  own  language  belongs.  This  people  probably  came  into 
Greece  not  by  a  sudden  conquest  but  by  "  successive  waves," 
becoming  fused  with  the  earlier  tribes  already  there ;  but  still 
they  preserved  their  own  speech  and  their  own  customs,  and 
developed  a  civilization  peculiarly  their  own. 

It  is  now  believed  by  scholars  that  the  Hellenes  made 
very  early  settlements  upon  both  shores  of  the  ^Egean  Sea; 
and  that  "  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  is  just  as  much  ancient 
Greek  soil  as  European  Greece  "  (Holm).  If  this  is  so,  we  can 
readily  imagine  the  general  course  of  the  ancient  settlements. 
Moving  from  their  earlier  home, — wherever  this  may  have 
been, — the  Hellenes  first  came  into  Thrace.  A  part  of  them 
then  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and,  passing  along  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  found  new  homes  in  Asia  Minor. 
Another  part,  pushing  to  the  west,  along  the  northern  and 
western  shores  of  the  ^Egean,  occupied  Thessaly,  Boeotia, 
Attica,  and  other  Grecian  lands.  At  the  time  of  their  settle- 
ment, the  earlv  Greek  tribes  on  either  side  of  the  sea  were 


82  THE    GREEK    WOULD 

scarcely  advanced  beyond  the  stage  of  barbarism.  They  wor- 
shiped their  ancestors  and  the  gods  of  nature;  chief  among 
these  gods  was  Zeus,  the  god  of  the  heavens.  They  lived  upon 
their  flocks  and  herds  and  were  beginning  to  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  agriculture,  cultivating  the  cereals  and  perhaps  the 
vine.  They  fought  with  spears  and  with  the  bow  and  arrow, 
and  made  their  implements  of  stone,  beginning  perhaps  to  use 
some  of  the  metals.  They  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
navigation,  certainly  with  the  use  of  boats  and  oars;  but  the 
use  of  sailing  vessels  was  probably  acquired  after  they  settled 
upon  the  ^Egean.  With  the  aid  of  these  vessels,  the  people  of 
the  different  shores  were  able  to  communicate  with  one  an- 
other, to  occupy  the  intervening  islands,  and  thus  to  preserve 
the  sense  of  their  original  kinship. 

Divisions  of  the  Hellenic  People. — The  Greeks  called  them- 
selves "  Hellenes  "  because  they  professed  to  believe  that  they 
were  descended  from  a  common  ancestor,  Hellen.  From  this 
common  ancestor  they  traced  four  lines  of  descendants,  or 
tribes — the  Achaeans,  the  lonians,  the  Dorians,  and  the 
^Eolians.  Their  mythical  relationship  is  indicated  as  follows: 

HELLEN 


XiiTiirs 
1 

DORUS 
(Dorians) 

JEOLUS 

(/Eolians) 

ACH^US 
(AclHBana) 

ION 
(lonians) 

The  Achaeans  were  in  very  early  times  the  leading  race  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  being  regarded  by  some  as  the  founders  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Tiryns,  Mycenae,  and  Argos.  The  early  home  of 
the  lonians  is  placed  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, also  in  Megaris,  Attica,  and  the  island  of  Euboea.  Tho 
Dnrans  are  supposed  to  have  occupied  in  very  early  times 
the  plains  of  Thessaly.  The  name  yEolian  was  used  to  cover 
the  rest  of  the  Hellenic  people. 


GKEECE,   ITS   PEOPLE   AND   EARLY    UttJKNDS         83 

The  most  important  of  these  tribes  during  the  historical 
period  were  the  Dorians  and  the  lonians.  The  Dorians  were 
a  simple,  practical,  and  warlike  race,  represented  by  the 
Spartans.  The  lonians  were  a  versatile,  enterprising,  and 
artistic  people,  represented  by  the  Athenians.  The  his- 
tory of  these  two  peoples  forms,  in  large  part,  the  history  of 
Greece. 

General  Characteristics  of  the  Greek  People. — There  were 
certain  qualities  which,  though  especially  marked  in  the  lo- 
nians, may  be  said  to  characterize  the  Greek  people  as  a  whole, 
and  which  distinguished  them  from  the  peoples  of  the  Orient. 
In  the  first  place,  they  possessed  a  strong  love  of  freedom, 
which  would  brook  no  restraint  except  that  which  they  imposed 
upon  themselves,  and  which  made  them  independent,  wide- 
awake, and  original.  In  the  next  place,  they  had  a  political 
instinct,  which  resulted  in  the  development  of  self-governing 
communities,  and  which  made  the  Greek  city  something  far 
different  from  the  cities  of  the  East.  Moreover,  they  were 
characterized  by  simplicity  and  moderation,  which  were  re- 
vealed not  only  in  their  art,  but  in  their  life,  and  which  led 
them  to  shun  all  forms  of  Oriental  ostentation  and  extrava- 
gance. Still  further,  they  possessed  great  intellectual  activity, 
which  showed  itself  in  literary  productions  and  philosophical 
speculations.  Finally,  they  were  gifted  with  a  fine  aesthetic 
sense,  a  taste  for  beauty  for  its  own  sake,  which  made  them 
the  creators  of  a  new  form  of  art.  These  qualities  gave  to  the 
world  a  new  type  of  culture. 

III.     THE  EARLY  LEGENDS  OF  GREECE 

Importance  of  the  legends. — The  character  of  the  Greek 
people  is  strikingly  set  forth  in  their  early  legends — the  myths 
and  stories  by  which  they  sought  in  a  fanciful  way  to  explain 
the  mysteries  of  nature  and  the  origin  of  their  own  institutions. 
It  was  principally  by  means  of  these  legends  that  the  Greeks 


84  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

attempted  to  reconstruct  their  early  history.1  The  importance 
which  we  attach  to  these  stories  will  depend  very  much  upon 
our  point  of  view.  If  we  look  at  them  as  giving  an  account 
of  actual  and  well-defined  events,  they  have  of  course  little 
historical  value.  But  if  we  look  at  them  as  indicating  the  ideas 
and  beliefs  of  the  people,  they  have  a  great  deal  of  significance. 
The  nature  of  the  early  Greek  mind  is  revealed  in  these  tradi- 
tional stories.  In  them  we  see  the  early  fancy  of  a  people 
who  afterward  became  the  masters  of  imaginative  thought. 
Without  a  knowledge  of  these  legends  much  of  the  literature 
and  art  of  a  later  period  would  be  unintelligible  to  us. 

Legends  of  the  Founders  of  Cities. — The  Greeks  surrounded 
every  locality,  every  mountain,  stream,  and  vale  with  a  halo  of 
song  and  story.  An  important  group  of  legends  referred  to 
the  founders  of  cities.  The  foundation  of  Athens,  for  exam- 
ple, was  ascribed  to  Cecrops,  regarded  by  some  as  a  native  of 
Egypt;  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  into  Attica  the  arts  of 
civilized  life,  and  from  him  the  Acropolis  was  first  called 
Cecro'pia.  Argos  was  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  an- 
other Egyptian,  named  Dan'aus,  who  fled  to  Greece  with  his 
fifty  daughters,  and  who  was  elected  by  the  people  as  their 
king,  and  from  whom  some  of  the  Greeks  received  the  name  of 
Danai'.  Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  looked  to  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician, 
as  its  founder;  he  was  believed  to  have  brought  into  Greece 
the  art  of  writing,  and  from  him  the  citadel  of  Thebes  received 
the  name  of  Cadme'a.  The  Peloponnesus  was  said  to  have 
been  settled  by,  and  to  have  received  its  name  frorri,  Pelops,  a 
man  from  Phrygia  in  Asia;  he  became  the  king  of  Mycenae, 
and  was  the  father  of  A'treus,  and  the  grandfather  of  A-a- 
mem'non  and  Menela'us,  chieftains  in  the  Trojan  war.  Such 
traditions  as  these  show  that  the  early  Greeks  had  some  no- 
tion of  their  dependence  upon  the  Kastcrn  nation-. 

'Many  of  the  early  myths  and  legends,  as  narrated  by  Homer  :ind  pre- 
served by  Me'siod  (in  Ills  Theog'ony),  were  gMthered  into  s<>me\vb;il  system- 
atic form  to  explain  the  genealogy  of  the  Hellenic  tribes,  their  subdivisions, 
and  the  origin  of  Greek  cities.  See  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  pp.  79-84. 


GREECE,    ITS    PEOPLE   AND   EARLY    LEGENDS       $5 


BELLEROPHON  AND 
PEGASUS 


Legends  of  Grecian  Heroes. — That  the  early  Greeks  had  an 

admiration  of  personal  prowess  and 

valiant  exploits  is  evident  from  the 

legends  which  they  wove  about  the 

names   of   their   great   heroes.      In 

these  fanciful  stories  we  may  see  the 

early  materials  of   Grecian  poetry. 

In  them  we  read  of  philanthropic 

deeds,  of  superhuman  courage,  and 

of  romantic  adventures.    We  read  of 

Per'seus,   the  slayer  of  the  horrid 

Medu'sa,   whose  locks   were   coiling 

serpents,    and    whose    looks   turned 

every  object  to  stone.      We  read  of 

Beller'ophon,  who  slew  the  monster 

ChimaB'ra,  and  captured  the  winged 

steed   Peg'asus,   on   whose   back  he 

tried  to  ascend  to  heaven.  We  read  of  Minos,  the  king  of 

Crete,  who  rid  the  sea  of  pirates, 
and  gave  to  his  subjects  a  code  of 
laws  received  from  Zeus.  We  read 
of  The'seus,  who  rid  the  land  of 
robbers,  and  who  delivered  Athens 
from  the  terrible  tribute  imposed 
by  the  king  of  Crete — a  tribute 
which  required  the  periodical  sac- 
rifice of  seven  youths  and  seven 
maidens  to  the  monster  Min'otaur. 
But  the  greatest  of  Grecian  heroes 
was  Her'acles  (Her'cules) .  Strange 
stories  were  told  of  the  "  twelve 
labors  "  of  this  famous  giant,  the 

prodigious  tasks  imposed  upon  him  by  the  king  of  Mycenae  with 

the  consent  of  Zeus.     The  prototype  of  the  Greek  Heracles 

may  be  found  in  Oriental  countries — in  Egypt,  in  Phoenicia, 


HERACLES 


86  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

and  in  Asia  Minor.  In  these  countries  his  power  was  related 
to  that  of  the  sun.  But  the  fancy  of  the  Greeks  turned  the 
sun  god  of  the  East  into  a  national  hero,  and  conferred  upon 
him  a  human  character. 

Legends  of  National  Exploits. — The  legends  are  not  only 
grouped  about  particular  places  and  individual  heroes,  but  have 
for  their  subjects  national  deeds,  marked  by  courage  and  forti- 
tude. One  of  these  stories  describes  the  so-called  "  Argo- 
nautic  expedition" — an  adventurous  voyage  of  fifty  heroes, 
who  set  sail  from  Bceotia  under  the  leadership  of  Jason,  in  the 
ship  A  rgo,  for  the  purpose  of  recovering  a  "  golden  fleece  " 
which  had  been  carried  away  to  Colchis,  a  far  distant  land  on 
the  shores  of  the  Euxine  (map,  p.  111).  Another  legend — the 
"  Seven  against  Thebes  " — narrates  the  tragic  story  of  (Ed'i- 
pus,  who  unwittingly  slew  his  own  father  and  married  his  own 
mother  and  was  banished  from  Thebes  for  his  crimes,  after 
having  been  made  king;  and  whose  sons  quarreled  for  the  va- 
cant throne,  one  of  them  with  the  aid  of  other  chieftains  mak- 
ing war  upon  his  native  city.  But  the  most  famous  of  the 
legendary  stories  of  Greece  was  that  which  described  the  Tro- 
jan war — the  military  expedition  of  the  Greeks  to  Troy,  in 
order  to  rescue  Helen,  who  was  the  beautiful  wife  of  Menelaus, 
king  of  Sparta,  and  who  had  been  stolen  away  by  Paris,  son 
of  the  Trojan  king.  The  details  of  this  story — the  wrath  of 
Achil'les,  the  battles  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Trojans,  the  de- 
struction of  Troy,  and  the  return  of  the  Grecian  heroes — 
are  the  subject  of  the  great  epic  poems  ascribed  to  Homer.  All 
these  legends,  whether  derived  from  a  foreign  source,  or  pro- 
duced upon  native  soil,  received  the  impress  of  the  Greek 
mind.  They  form  one  of  the  legacies  from  the  prehistoric  age, 
and  reveal  some  of  the  features  of  the  early  Greek  character. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  HELLAS,  THE  LAND  OF  THE  GREEKS. — Greece  and  the  Orient. — 
t-aphical  Features  of  Greece. — Divisions  of  Greece. — Greater 
Hellas. 


T11K    EARLIEST    AGKS    OF    GREECE  87 

II.  THE  HELLENES,  THE  PEOPLE  OF  GREECE. — The  Earliest  In- 
habitants of  Greece. — The  Coining  of  the  Hellenes. — Divisions  of 
the  Hellenic  People. — Characteristics  of  the  Greek  People. 

III.  THE    EARLY    LEGENDS    OF    GREECE. — Importance    of    the 
I. trends. — Legends  of  the  Founders  of  Cities. — Legends  of  Gre- 
cian Heroes. — Legends  of  National  Exploits. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Smith,   Wm.,    "Introduction,    Outlines   of    Grecian    Geography"; 

Ch.    I,    "Earliest    Inhabitants   of    Greece";    Ch.    2,    "Grecian 

Heroes"  (10). ' 

Oman,  Ch.  1,  "Geography  of  Greece"  (10). 
Bury,  Introduction,  "Greece  and  the  ^Egean"  (10). 
Cox,  History,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "Physical  Geography  of  Continental 

Hellas";     Ch.    3,    "Mythology    and    Tribal    Legends    of    the 

Greeks"   (10). 
Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "Hellas";  Ch.  2,  "The  Earliest  Inhabitants"; 

Ch.  3,  "Migrations  and  Legendary  History"  (10). 
Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "Land  and  People"  (10). 
Grote,  Part  II.,  Ch.  16,  "Grecian  Myths  as  Understood,  Felt  and 

Interpreted  by  the  Greeks  Themselves"    (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  1.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Country";  Ch.  4,  "The  Earliest  Tradi- 
tional    History";     Ch.     10,     "Most     Important     Legends     of 

Greece"    (10). 

Herodotus,  Bk.  I.,  Chs.  52-58  (Pelasgians  and  Helleues)    (17). 
Thucydides,  Bk.  I.,  Chs.  2-12  (early  peoples  of  Greece)   (17). 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE   EARLIEST  AGES  OF   GREECE 
I.     THE  MYCENAEAN  AGE 

Recent  Excavations  in  Hellas. — Not  many  years  ago  our 
knowledge  of  the  early  ages  of  Greece  was  derived  almost  en- 
tirely from  the  old  legends — especially  those  contained  in  the 
Homeric  poems.  These  were  at  one  time  accepted  as  giving 
real  historical  facts,  but  were  afterward  rejected  as  purely 

irThe  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  In  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


88  THE    (J1IEEK    WORLD 

imaginary.  But  recent  excavations  have  thrown  a  new  light 
upon  these  early  ages,  and  opened  a  new  world  to  the  student 
of  Greek  history.  The  story  of  these  diggings  among  the  ruins 
of  the  old  cities  of  the  ^Egean  has  an  almost  romantic  interest. 
The  name  most  closely  connected  with  them  is  that  of  Dr. 
Schliemann,  the  German  archaBologist.  It  was  his  childlike 
faith  in  Homer  and  the  tale  of  Troy  that  led  him  to  seek  for 
the  Trojan  city  and  the  palace  of  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae. 
The  excavations  made  by  him  (beginning  in  1871),  together 
with  the  work  of  his  successors,  have  not  only  given  us  new 
ideas  regarding  the  poems  of  Homer,  but  have  also  presented 
many  new  and  difficult  problems  regarding  the  early  ages  of 
Greece.  We  can  do  no  more  here  than  to  refer  briefly  to  the 
most  important  of  these  excavations,  and  the  relics  they  have 
disclosed. 

Hissarlik  and  the  City  of  Troy.— The  hill  of  Hissar'lik,  sit- 
uated in  Tro'as,  in  northern  Asia  Minor,  was  believed  by  Dr. 


THE  HILL  OF  HISSARLIK 


Schliemann  to  be  the  site  of  Troy.  But  instead  of  finding  here 
a  single  city,  he  found  the  ruins  of  nine  cities.  I  vim:  one  above 
another  ;m<l  representing  dilVerenl  stages  <>f  human  protLriv-<. 
The  lowest  city  contained  relics  of  the  stone  age — stone  axes, 


THE   EARLIEST   AGES   OF   (JRKECE  89 

flint  knives,  earthen  vessels  covered  with  rude  decorations. 
The  second  city — evidently  destroyed  by  a  conflagration  and 
hence  called  the  "  burnt  city  " — was  surrounded  by  walls  built 
of  brick  and  placed  upon  rough  stone  foundations.  It  con- 
tained a  palace  surrounding  a  court.  Among  the  ruins  were 
found  battle-axes,  spearheads,  and  daggers  made  of  copper, 
showing  that  its  inhabitants  belonged  to  what  we  call  the  "  age 
of  bronze."  There  were  found  also  articles  of  fine  workman- 
ship, showing  an  Eastern  influence — cups  of  silver,  diadems, 
bracelets,  earrings  made  of  gold,  and  also  articles  of  ivory  and 
jade  which  could  have  come  only  from  central  Asia.  This 
"  burnt  city  "  was  believed  by  Dr.  Schliemann  to  have  been 
the  Troy  of  Homer.  But  the  later  work  of  Dr.  Dorpfeld,  the 
distinguished  colleague  of  Schliemann,  has  shown  that  the 
sixth  city — with  its  great  circuit  walls,  its  stately  houses  of 
well-dressed  stone,  and  its  finely  wrought  vases — is  more  likely 
to  be  the  city  described  in  the  Homeric  poems. 

The  Citadel  of  Tiryns. — But  the  most  important  remains  of 
this  prehistoric  age  have  been  found,  not  in  Asia  Minor,  but 
in  European  Greece,  especially  in  two  cities  of  Argolis — 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae.  Tiryns  is  the  older  of  these,  and  its 
walls,  too,  are  better  preserved.  The  citadel  of  Tiryns  was 
surrounded  by  massive  walls.  The  palace  consisted  of  a  com- 
plicated system  of  courts,  halls,  and  corridors,  suggesting  an 
Oriental  palace  rather  than  any  building  in  historic  Greece. 
The  most  artistic  features  of  the  palace  were  alabaster  friezes, 
carved  in  rich  patterns  of  rosettes  and  spirals,  such  as  are 
described  in  the  Homeric  poems  (Odyssey,  Bk.  VIL). 

The  Ruins  and  Relics  of  Mycenae. — The  prehistoric  culture 
of  Greece  probably  reached  its  highest  development  at  Mycena?. 
One  of  the  most  conspicuous  objects  here  was  the  well-known 
"lion  gate"  (p.  92).  through  which  the  citadel  was  entered, 
and  which  had  been  an  object  of  interest  to  the  later  Greeks. 
The  form  of  these  rampant  lions  has  often  been  compared  to 
similar  designs  in  the  East,  especially  in  Assyria  and  Phrygia. 


90  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

Within  the  walls  near  the  gate  was  found  a  circle  of  upright 
slabs  inclosing  a  number  of  graves.  Those  contained  human 
bodies  and  a  wealth  of  art  treasures — articles  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  bronze,  terra  cotta,  glass,  ivory,  and  precious  stones; 
articles  of  ornament,  such  as  diadems,  pendants,  and  rings  of  ar- 
tistic design;  articles  of  use,  such  as  bowls, pitchers, cups,  ladles, 
spoons,  etc.  These  articles  show  a  high  degree  of  mechanical 
skill  and  artistic  taste.  Some  of  them  may  have  been  brought 
from  the  East,  and  some  of  them  may  have  been  the  products 
of  native  industry.  Below  the  citadel  was  found  another  type 


THE  SO-CALLED  "TREASURY  OF  ATREUS" 

of  sepulchers,  called  from  their  peculiar  form  "bee-hive 
tombs,"  one  of  which  the  archaeologists  have  called  the  "  Treas- 
ury of  Atreus."1 

Other  Sites  of  Prehistoric  Remains. — Recent  excavations 
have  shown  that  the  kind  of  culture  which  existed  in  the  pre- 
historic cities  of  Tiryns  and  MycenaB  prevailed  in  many  other 
parts  of  Greece,  and  in  many  islands  of  the  ^Egean.  At  Or- 
chomenus,  in  Boeotia,  was  discovered  an  elaborate  and  beauti- 

1  Such  structures  were  at  first  supposed  to  lie  places  where  the  kings 
kept  their  treasures.  The  ancient  writer  Pnusanias  mentions  at  My- 
cenae "underground  structures  of  Atreus  and  his  suns  win-re  they  kepi  their 
treasuries."  I'.ut  archa olo^'ists  are  now  agreed  that  these  structures  were 
not  treasure-houpes  hut  tomhs.  See  Tsountas  and  Manatt,  Mycenaean  Age, 
p.  117. 


THE    EARLIEST   AGES   OF  (ilM-JX  K 


91 


THE  VAPHIO  GOLD  CUPS 

ful  ceiling  said  to  be  of  a  pure  Egyptian  pattern.  At  Vaphi'd 
(near  Sparta)  were  found  two  remarkable  gold  cups  covered 
with  finely  wrought  relief  work,  and  regarded  by  some  as  the 
most  artistic  work  of  the  prehistoric  age.  In  Crete  has  been 
discovered  a  crude  and  cu-  ,— 
rious  form  of  hieroglyph- 
ic writing.  But  a  strange 
feature  of  these  remarkable 
discoveries  is  not  the  pres- 
ence of  writing  in  Crete,  but 
the  almost  total  absence  of 
writing  and  inscriptions 
everywhere  else  among  a  people  who  possessed  so  many  of  the 
evidences  of  civilization. 

Character  of  the  Mycenaean  Culture. — The  type  of  civiliza- 
tion brought  to  light  by  these  discoveries  has  been  called  by 
some  "  Mycenaean,"  from  the  city  in  Argolis  where  its  remains 
are  most  conspicuous;  and  by  others  it  has  been  called 
"^Egean,"  from  the  fact  that  it  seems  to  have  extended  over  a 
large  part  of  the  ^Egean  basin.  It  is  supposed  to  have  reached 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 6 


PREHISTORIC  WRITING  FROM  CRETE 


92  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

its  culmination  perhaps  between  the  years  1500  B.  c.  and  1200 
B.  c.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  its  earlier  stages  it 
may  have  extended  back  as  far  as  2000  B.  c.?  or  even  to  an 
earlier  date.  Its  last  and  declining  stage  was  evidently  closed 
by  the  Dorian  migration  about  1000  B.  c.,  when  it  was  swept 
from  Greece,  its  memory  still  lingering  in  the  minds  of  those 


THE  "LION  GATE"  AT  MYCENAE 


tribes  that  migrated  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Regarding 
the  origin  of  this  ancient  culture  of  Greece  we  have  no  right  to 
speak  with  confidence,  since  scholars  are  by  no  means  agreed 
upon  the  question.  We  may  venture  the  opinion  that  this  cul- 
ture— with  its  strange  mingling  of  crude  art,  of  massive  walls, 
of  palatial  building.  <>!'  Oriental  designs,  and  of  objects  show- 
ing a  high  mechanical  skill  and  eastern  taste — may  have  been 
developed  by  the  early  people  of  Greece  who  were  brought 


THE  EARLIEST  AGES  OF  GREECE        93 

into  close  commercial  and  intellectual' relation  with  the  people 
of  the  Orient.  Whatever  we  may  think  of  its  character  and 
origin,  we  know  that  it  exercised  but  slight  influence  upon 
the  classic  art  of  Greece,  but  passed  away,  leaving  scarcely 
more  than  monuments  and  memories.  These  memories,  how- 
ever, furnished  an  inspiration  to  the  poets  and  minstrels  of  the 
Homeric  age. 

II.    TRANSITION  TO  THE  HOMERIC  AGE 

The  So-called  Dorian  Migration. — The  brilliant  period  of 
ancient  Greece  which  we  call  the  Mycenaean  age,  was  evidently 
brought  to  a  close  by  a  great  movement  which  affected  practi- 
cally a  large  part  of  the  Greek  world.  It  seems  quite  certain 
that  about  the  year  1000  B.  c.  there  was  a  general  disturbance 
of  the  population  throughout  Greece.  This  was  due  to  the 
movement  of  the  northern  tribes  into  the  south,  resulting  in 
the  displacement  of  the  old  inhabitants  and  the  destruction 
of  the  old  civilization.  This  movement  is  called  the  "  Dorian 
migration."  It  is  known  in  the  traditional  history  as  the 
"  Return  of  the  Heracli'da?  " — being  mixed  up  with  stories  re- 
garding the  descendants  of  Heracles.  Notwithstanding  the 
myths  connected  with  it,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  real  move- 
ment, which  affected  nearly  all  the  tribes  of  Greece,  and  which 
may  have  extended  over  many  generations.  As  a  result  of  this 
movement,  we  find  the  Dorians,  who  formerly  occupied  Thes- 
saly,  now  the  leading  race  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  Migrations  to  Asia  Minor. — The  invasion  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus by  the  Dorians  resulted  not  only  in  rearranging  the 
tribes  in  Greece  proper,  but  also  in  bringing  about  a  closer 
union  between  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The  people  who  had 
been  dispossessed  of  their  old  homes  in  Greece,  or  who  were 
not  satisfied  with  their  new  ones,  sought  other  settlements 
across  the  sea.  The  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  already  peopled  by 
an  ancient  Greek  race  (p.  81),  now  received  a  new  population 


K"o.  6. 


94 


THE    EAKL1EST   ACJES    OF   (JHICKCE  U5 

from  the  European  peninsula.     There  were,  in  fact,  three 
streams  of  migration  from  Greece  to  Asia  Minor. 

(1)  One  stream  of  migration  was  made  up  of  the  JEolians, 
— which  name  came  to  be  a  general  term  applied  to  all  who 
were  not  lonians  or  Dorians,  including  even  the  Achaeans.  This 
mixed  people  took  possession  of  the  northern  part  of  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Asia  Minor.    They  occupied  the  island  of  Lesbos 
and  founded  the  important  city  of  Mytile'ne.     Their  settle- 
ments upon  the  coast  extended  nearly  as  far  north  as  the  Hel- 
lespont, and  as  far  south  as  the  river  Hermus.    But  the  settle- 
ments upon  the  mainland  had  less  historical  importance  than 
those  upon  the  island  of  Lesbos,  where  the  people  became  noted 
for  their  culture,  especially  in  music  and  poetry. 

(2)  A  second  stream  of  migration  comprised  the  lonians, 
who  settled  upon  the  central  part  of  the  coast.    They  took  a 
course  across  the  sea  by  way  of  the  Cyclades,  leaving  on  these 
islands  colonies  of  their  own  people.    They  took  possession  of 
the  islands  of  Chios  and  Samos.    They  occupied  the  coast  land 
from  Phocae'a  to  Mile'tus,  and  the  latter  city  became  especially 
noted  for  its  commerce  and  its  colonies. 

(3)  A  third  stream  was  that  of  the  Dorians,  who  took  a 
southern  course  by  way  of  Crete,  where  they  left  their  colonies. 
They  also  occupied  Rhodes  and  Cos,  and  on  the  mainland  they 
established  Halicarnas'sus  and  other  less  important  towns. 

The  New  Culture  of  Asia  Minor. — The  invasion  of  the  Do- 
rians and  the  migrations  to  Asia  Minor  mark  the  decline 
of  the  old  Mycenaean  age.  But  these  movements  also  mark 
the  transition  to  a  new  phase  of  culture  in  Asia  Minor.  We 
shall  find  that  during  this  transitional  period  the  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  became  the  chief  centers  of  intellectual  life  and 
activity.  But  the  new  culture  of  Asia  Minor  did  not  consist 
in  reproducing  the  works  of  Mycenaean  art ;  it  consisted  rather 
in  rehearsing  the  traditional  glories  of  that  golden  age.  The 
bards  of  Ionia  recounted  the  mythical  stories  of  the  gods,  the 
legends  of  ancient  heroes,  and  the  traditions  of  Troy  and 


96  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

Mycenae.  They  accompanied  their  words  with  regular  strokes 
upon  the  lyre ;  and  their  fanciful  stories  fell  into  rhythm  and 
took  the  form  of  the  hexameter  verse.  The  group  of  Ionian 
bards  in  Asia  Minor  received  the  name  of  the  "  cyclic  poets  " ; 
and  the  group  of  narrative  poems  which  they  produced  is 
known  as  the  "  epic  cycle."  These  lays  were  descriptive  in 
character  and  inspired  with  an  heroic  spirit ;  they  were  full  of 
imagination,  reciting  the  deeds  of  gods  and  men  and  throwing 
a  halo  about  the  past. 

III.     THE  HOMERIC  POEMS  AND  THE  HOMERIC  AGE 

The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey. — From  the  cycle  of  poems  that 
sprang  up  in  Asia  Minor  there  emerged  two  great  epics,  known 
as  the  "  Il'iad  "  and  the  "  Od'yssey."  Being  the  fittest  expres- 
sions of  the  popular  thought  and  feeling,  they  survived.  They 
are,  in  fact,  regarded  by  many  critics  as  the  greatest  epic  poems 
in  the* world's  literature.  The  Iliad  is  a  poem  of  war,  and  the 


DEPARTURE  OF  ACHILLES  (From  an  ancient  vase) 

Odyssey  is  a  poem  of  peace.  The  former  describes  the  closing 
scenes  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  revolves  about  the  wrath  of 
Achilles,  the  warlike  son  of  the  king  of  Thessaly.  The 
leader  of  the  Grecian  nnnics  WMS  A,Lr;imrmn<>n.  kmir  of  Myce- 
nae, and  hence  we  find  m:mv  Iniditions  which  reach  back  io 
the  Mycenaaan  age.  The  Odyssey  narrates  events  which  were 


THE  EAKLIEST  AGES  OF  GREECE 


supposed  to  follow  the  Trojan  war,  especially  the  wanderings 
of  Odys'seus  (Ulysses)  on  his  return  to  his  home. 

The  Homeric  Question. — These  poems  stand  out  promi- 
nently from  an  otherwise  dark  and  obscure  period.  They 
have  naturally  been  made  the  subject  of  the  most  searching  in- 
quiries. Was  there  ever  such  a  poet  as  Homer?  Were  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  both  produced  by  the  same  person?  Was 
either  poem  originally  a  single 
production?  Was  not  each  one 
rather  a  collection  of  separate 
ballads,  afterward  brought  to- 
gether by  some  skillful  hand? 
These  queries  comprise  the 
chief  points  in  what  is  called 
the  "  Homeric  question." 
The  ancients  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  two  epics  were 
produced  by  the  same  poet, 
and  that  this  poet  was  Ho- 
mer. Certain  critics  of  Alex- 
andria, observing  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  poems, 
declared  that  they  were  pro- 
duced by  two  different  poets.  Modern  critics  have  submitted 
the  theory  that  each  poem  was  a  collection  of  lays,  originally 
distinct,  but  collected  into  a  coherent  form  during  the  historical 
period.  This  question  will  perhaps  never  be  settled  to  the 
satisfaction  of  every  one. 

Historical  Value  of  the  Homeric  Poems. — Whether  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey  were  the  product  of  one  poet  or  not,  they  were 
evidently  produced  in  the  transitional  period  (probably  about 
850  B.  c.)  between  the  prehistoric  age  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenae, 
and  the  historic  age  of  Sparta  and  Athens.  They  are  made  up 
largely  of  legends  and  traditions,  and  so  far  are  no  more 
valuable  than  any  other  legends  and  traditions.  But  traditions 


HOMER 


98  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

are-  not  necessarily  false.  The  recently  discovered  relics  of 
the  prehistoric  age  show  how  faithfully  the  memories  of 
"  golden  Mycenae  "  were  preserved  by  the  people  who  migrated 
to  Asia  Minor  and  were  expressed  in  the  Homeric  poems. 
But  the  great  historical  value  of  these  poems  does  not  consist 
merely  in  the  narrative  of  traditional  events  and  the  pictures 
of  past  glories.  It  consists  rather  in  the  great  number  of  allu- 
sions made  to  the  life  and  customs  of  the  early  Greek  people. 
Homer  painted  the  past  in  the  colors  of  his  own  time.  From 
the  numerous  allusions  made  to  industry  and  art,  to  society 
and  government,,  to  religion  and  morality,  we  can  get  a  com- 
prehensive view  of  that  early  culture  which  existed  among  the 
prehistoric  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  and  which  was  bequeathed 
to  the  Greeks  of  historical  times.  It  has  been  forcibly  said 
that  "  while  the  pre-Doric  art  in  Europe  was  not  continued  in 
later  times,  and  the  later  genuine  Greek  art  followed  other 
paths  than  those  of  MycenaB  and  Orchomenus,  the  earliest 
poetry  of  Asia  Minor  is  still  the  truest  expression  of  Greek  life 
that  exists"  (Holm). 

The  Homeric  Society  and  Government. — In  the  Homeric 
poems  we  see  the  picture  of  a  simple  and  primitive  society, 
such  as  we  find  among  other  early  Aryan  peoples.  Its  primary 
element  was  the  family,  comprising  the  household  father,  the 
mother,  the  children, and  the  slaves.  The  families  were  grouped 
into  clans,  and  these  into  tribes.  The  tribe  was  governed  by  a 
king  (bas'ileus),  who  performed  the  religious  rites  of  the  tribe, 
settled  disputes,  and  commanded  the  people  in  time  of  war. 
He  was  assisted  by  a  council  (bnu'U),  made  up  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  clans.  Matters  of  great  importance,  like  the  declaration 
of  war  or  the  distribution  of  plunder,  mi^ht  be  left  to  the 
•ibly  (n(/'nni).  which  comprised  all  the  people  capable  of 
bearing  arms.  In  times  of  war  several  tribes  might  unite 
under  a  common  chieftain;  for  example,  in  the  expedition 
aLMin-t  Troy,  the  Creek  tribes  were  united  under  the  leadership 
of  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae. 


THE   EARLIEST   AtJES    OF   GREECE 


99 


Homeric  Industry  and  Art. — We  may  also  obtain  from  the 
Homeric  poems  an  idea  of  the  degree  of  progress  made  by  the 
early  Greeks  in  the  art  of  living.  They  obtained  their  food, 
not  only  by  hunting  and  fishing,  but  also  by  the  domestication 
of  animals  and  by  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  They  had  the 
use  of  at  least  six  metals, — gold,  silver,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and 
tin, — which  they  obtained  mostly  from  other  lands.  They 
worked  the  metals  in  a  simple  way,  and  did  not  possess  the  fine 
mechanical  skill  seen  in  the  more  ancient  works  of  the  Myce- 
naean and  Oriental  art.  The  descriptions, .  contained  in  the 
poems,  of  princely  palaces  with  their  rich  decorations  and  fur- 
niture, are  based  upon  the  traditions  of  an  age  which  had 
passed  away,  but  which  had  not  been  forgotten. 

Homeric  Religion  and  Morality. — The  religion  of  the  Ho- 
meric age  was  evidently  derived 
from  the  nature  worship  of 
the  early  Aryans.  The  Greeks 
coupled  with  their  nature  wor- 
ship an  elaborate  and  beautiful 
mythology;  and  they  saw  in 
their  gods  beings  like  themselves, 
with  human  feelings  and  foibles, 
with  human  likes  and  dis- 
likes. The  gods  were  supposed 
to  dwell  about  the  top  of  Mt. 
Olympus,  where  they  feasted  and 
held  their  councils.  They  took 
part  in  the  battles  of  the  Trojan 
war,  and  assisted  the  Greeks 

or  the  Trojans  according  to  their  preferences  for  either  party. 
At  the  head  of  the  divine  circle  was  Zeus,  the  god  of  the  heav- 
ens and  the  father  of  gofls  and  men.  Around  him  were  gath- 
ered the  other  Olympian  deities.  The  Olympian  circle  con- 
sisted of  the  greater  deities,  comprising  six  gods  and  six  god- 
desses. The  six  gods  were:  (1)  Zeus  (Jupiter),  the  supreme 


ZEUS 


100 


THE    (JHKEK    VVOKLD 


god  of  the  heavens,  the  king  and  father  of  mankind;  (2) 
Apollo,  god  of  light  and  of  prophecy;  (3)  Ares  (Mars),  god 
of  war;  (4)  Hermes  (Mercury),  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  the 
patron  of  commerce,  and  the  master  of  cunning;  (5)  Posei'- 
don  (N"eptune),  god  of  the  sea;  and  (6)  Hephces'tus  (Vulcan), 
god  of  fire.  The  six  goddesses  were :  ( 1 )  Hera  ( Juno) ,  the  wife 

of  Zeus  and  the  queen  of 
heaven  ;  (2)  Athena 
(Minerva),  goddess  of 
wisdom,  who  was  born 
from  the  forehead  of  Zeus ; 
(3)  Artemis  (Dian'a), 
goddess  of  the  chase;  (4) 
Aphrodi'te  (Venus),  god- 
dess of  love  and  beauty; 
(5)  Deme'ter  (Ceres), 
goddess  of  the  harvest; 
and  (6)  Hcstia  (Vesta), 
goddess  of  the  hearth.  Be- 
sides these  superior  deities 
there  were  a  large  number 
of  inferior  gods,  as  well  as 
mythical  beings,  with  which 
the  Greek  imagination  peo- 
HERA  pled  the  sky,  the  earth,  and 

the  sea.  The  Greeks  believed  that  the  favor  of  the  gods  may  be 
obtained  by  prayers  and  sacrifices,  and  that  their  will  may  be 
discovered  by  means  of  signs  and  oracles.  They  also  believed 
in  a  future  life,  where  those  who  had  found  favor  with  the 
gods  would  receive  a  place  in  Elys'ium,  the  field  of  the  blest ; 
and  those  who  had  incurred  their  anger  would  be  condemn^! 
to  Tar'tarus,  the  gulf  of  torment.  The  people  of  Homeric 
Greece  were  probably  no  better  and  no  worse  than  the  early 
people  of  other  countries.  They  lived  a  bright  ami  cheerful 
life.  Tn  ]>e,i<-e  they  \V<MV  hospitable  lo  the  stranger;  in  war 


T11K    KAKUKST    A<JK:~    OF    (JIlKKt   E  101 

they  wore  vindictive  and  cruel  to  their  fallen  foes.    Thi-y 


a  high  respect  for  women;  but  they  were  often  deceitful  in 
their  commercial  dealings  and  regarded  piracy  as  an  honorable 
calling.  Their  highest  motive  of  life  was  to  obtain  the  ap- 
proval of  the  gods. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  MYCENAEAN  AGE.  —  Kecent  Excavations  in  Hellas.  —  His- 
sarlik  and  the  City  of  Troy.—  The  Citadel  of  Tiryns.—  The  Ruins 
and  Relics  of  Mycenae.  —  Other  Sites  of  Prehistoric  Remains.  — 
Character  of  the  Mycenaean  Culture. 

II.  TRANSITION  TO  THE   HOMERIC  AGE.  —  The   So-called   Dorian 
Migration.  —  The  Migrations  to  Asia  Minor.  —  The  New  Culture  of 
Asia  Minor. 

III.  THE  HOMERIC  POEMS  AND  THE  HOMERIC  AGE.  —  The   Iliad 
and    the    Odyssey.  —  The    Homeric    Question.  —  Historical    Value 
of   the    Homeric    Poems.  —  Homeric    Society    and    Government.  — 
Homeric  Industry  and  Art.  —  Homeric  Religion  and  Morality. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Bury,  Ch.  1,  "Beginnings  of  Greece  and  the  Heroic  Age"  (10).1 
Oman,  Ch.  2,  'VEgean  Civilization";   Ch.  3,  "The  Homeric  Poems 

and  the  Greeks  of  the  Heroic  Age";  Ch.  5,  "The  Great  Migra- 

tions" (10). 

Hall,  Ch.  7,  "Mycenae's  Place  in  History"  (13). 
Schuchhardt,   Ch.   1,   "Life  of  Dr.   Schliemann";    Ch.  2,  "Troy"; 

Ch.  3,   "Tiryns";    Ch.   4,   "Mycenae"    (13). 
Smith,  Wm.,  Ch.  3,  "State  of  Society  of  the  Heroic  Age";  Ch.  5, 

"The  Poems  of  Homer"  (10). 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  5,  "The  Homeric  Poems"   (10). 
Grote,  Part  I.,  Ch.  21,  "Grecian  Epic—  Homeric  Poems"  (10). 
Warr,  Ch.  2,  "The  Homeric  Poetry"  (14). 
Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  2,  "The  Homeric  Age"  (10). 
Fowler,  Ch.  3,  "The  Homeric  Question"  (15). 
Freeman,  Essay,  "Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age"  (3). 
Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  13,  "Civilization  of  the  Asiatic  Greek  —  Homeric 

Poetry";  Ch.  14,  "Institutions  and  Mode  of  Life  of  the  Early 

Greeks,  Especially  as  Described  by  Homer"   (10). 
Jebb,  Homer,  Ch.  2,  "The  Homeric  World"  (14). 
Keller,  Ch.  3,   "Religious  Ideas  and  Usages";    Ch.   5,  "Marriage 

and  the  Family";   Ch.  6,  "Government,"  etc.   (14). 
Homer,  Iliad,  Bk.  I.   (contention  of  Achilles  and  Agamemnon); 

Odyssey,  Bk.  VI.  (the  palace  of  Alcinoiis)   (17). 
See  also  Appendix  (13)  Mycenaean  Age  and  (14)  Homer  and  the 

Homeric  Age. 

1The   figure  in   parenthesis   refers   to   the  number  of  the  topic   in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  II,    DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GREEK  CITY  STATES 
(776-500  B,  0.) 


CHAPTER    VIII 

POLITICAL  GROWTH  AND  EXPANSION  OF  GREECE 
I.     THE  EARLY  CITY  STATE 

Importance  of  the  Greek  Cities. — We  have  already  seen 
among  the  early  Greeks,  some  evidences  of  their  political  life. 
The  cities  of  the  Mycenaean  age  were  evidently  ruled  by  kings 
of  the  Oriental  type,  with  their  sumptuous  palaces  and  their 
subject  population.  Next,  in  the  Homeric  period,  we  have  seen 
a  simpler  form  of  political  life,  in  which  the  government  was 
divided  between  the  king,  the  council,  and  the  assembly.  This 
form  of  government  was  very  primitive  in  character,  but  from 
it  sprang  the  city  states  of  historical  Greece.  It  is  in  these  city 
states  that  we  are  to  find  the  beginnings  of  political  freedom, 
and  in  fact  the  germs  of  modern  constitutional  liberty.  As  we 
study  the  growth  of  the  cities  we  must  observe  the  striking  con- 
trast between  them  and  the  cities  of  the  East.  The  Oriental 
cities  were  governed  solely  by  the  king,  or  by  viceroys  subject 
to  the  king ;  and  this  resulted  in  the  growth  of  autocratic  and 
despotic  governments,  in  which  the  people  had  no  part.  In  the 
Greek  cities,  on  the  other  hand,  the  people  obtained  a  certain 
share  in  the  government;  and  this  resulted  in  the  growth  of 
institutions  more  or  less  democratic  in  character.  Even  at  the 
beginning  of  the  historical  period  we  find  many  centers  of  city 

103 


POLITICAL   GROWTH    AND  EXPANSION  103 

life  in  different  parts  of  Greece.  These  cities  were  in  a  more  or 
less  flourishing  condition  and  could  already  boast  of  great  age. 
Their  origin  is  hidden  in  the  mists  of  tradition ;  and  we  must 
form  our  ideas  of  their  early  development  chiefly  hy  studying 
the  elements  of  which  they  were  composed.1 

The  Elements  of  the  City  State. — The  early  Greek  state  was 
no  doubt  the  result  of  a  slow  process  of  growth.  We  may  trace 
its  gradual  development  from  the  family,  the  primitive  ele- 
ment of  Greek  society.  The  family  was  governed  by  the  father, 
who  presided  over  the  family  worship,  and  controlled  all  its 
members.  The  family  expanded  naturally  into  the  clan,  or 
gens,  which  was  essentially  the  larger  body  of  family  relatives, 
held  together  by  a  common  worship  and  by  a  common  feeling 
of  kinship.  The  clan  was  governed  by  a  council  of  the  house- 
hold fathers,  and  by  a  chief  man  selected  to  preside  over  the 
common  worship,  to  settle  disputes,  and  to  lead  the  people  in 
time  of  war.  In  times  of  great  danger  the  different  clans  would 
be  induced  to  unite  in  a  larger  body,  called  a  brotherhood  or 
"  phratry."  This,  too,  had  its  own  chief  and  council,  and  its 
armed  men  might  be  called  together  in  an  assembly  to  decide 
on  questions  of  war.  To  repel  a  common  peril  the  phratries 
would  league  themselves  into  a  still  larger  body  called  the 
"  tribe,"  which  would  also  have  its  own  leader,  council,  and 
assembly.  By  these  successive  unions  was  gradually  developed 
the  tribal  state  such  as  we  find  in  Homeric  times  (compare 
p.  98)  ;  and  this  grew  into  the  city  state  of  the  historical 
-period.  The  elements  which  entered  into  the  city  state  were 
thus  the  family,  the  gens,  the  phratry,  and  the  tribe. 

The  Government  of  the  City  State. — The  city  was  generally 
formed  by  a  union  of  tribes.  The  people  sought  a  common 

1  Among  the  most  important  of  these  cities  were  the  following :  in 
central  Greece,  Athens,  Eleu'sis,  Platse'a,  Thebes,  Orchomenus,  Delphi, 
Naupactus  ;  in  the  northern  Peloponnesus,  Mycensp,  Tiryns,  Argos,  Ne'mea, 
Corinth,  Sic'yon  (sish'i-on),  Elis,  Olympia  ;  in  the  southern  Peloponnesus, 
Sparta,  Amy'clap,  Helos,  Mantine'a,  Te'gea,  Pylos.  (For  the  location  of 
these  cities  ?ee  maps,  pp.  78,  119). 


104  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

center  of  defense  on  some  elevated  spot — like  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens — which  could  be  fortified,  and  to  which  they  might 
retreat  in  times  of  danger.  They  were  held  together  by  the 
worship  of  some  common  deity,  whom  they  regarded  as  their 
protector.  The  city  population  comprised  not  simply  the  peo- 
ple who  lived  within  the  city  walls  but  also  those  who  lived 
in  the  surrounding  country — in  fact,  all  those  who  shared  in 
the  common  city  worship  and  were  subject  to  the  common  city 
government.  This  government  in  early  times  was  patterned 
after  that  of  the  tribe,  and  consisted  of  the  king,  the  council, 
and  the  assembly. 

(1)  The  city  king  (basikus)  was,  like  the  older  tribal  chief, 
the  leader  of  the  people  in  time  of  war,  the  priest  of  the  com- 
mon city  religion,  and  the  judge  to  settle  disputes  between  the 
citizens.    He  governed  by  no  written  laws,  but  tried  to  uphold 
the  existing  customs  of  the  people  and  what  he  supposed  to  be 
the  will  of  the  gods. 

(2)  The  city  council  (boule)  was,  like  the  council  of  the 
tribe,  made  up  of  the  leading  men  of  the  community.     They 
formed  a  sort  of  advisory  body,  which  was  called  together 
whenever  the  king  desired.    On  account  of  their  influence  they 
might  guide  or  restrain  the  power  of  the  king;  and  on  account 
of  their  superior  birth  or  position,  they  came  to  be  an  aristo- 
cratic class,  or  what  we  might  call  a  body  of  nobles. 

(3)  The  city  assembly  (agora),  like  the  tribal  assembly,  was 
composed  of  all  citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms.    As  the  state 
was  formed  originally  for  the  purpose  of  protection,  and  as  it 
thus  had  primarily  a  military  character,  the  people  were  gen- 
erally consulted  only  on  questions  relating  to  war.   But  as  the 
state  acquired  more  and  more  a  civil  character,  the  assem- 
bly of  the  people  came  to  be  a  more  important  element  in  the 
government. 

Independence  of  the  City  States. — The  Greek  world  was 
made  up  of  a  large  number  of  these  little  city  states,  which  for 
the  most  part  preserved  their  local  independence.  This  was 


POLITICAL   GROWTH   AND   EXPANSION  105 

due  largely  to  the  broken  nature  of  the  territory,  which  kept 
the  different  communities  separated  from  one  another.  It  was 
due  also  to  the  independent  spirit  of  the  people  themselves. 
The  national,  life  of  Greece  thus  became  localized  in  the  cities. 
The  spirit  of  patriotism  consisted  in  the  love  of  one's  own 
city;  and  the  great  achievements  of  the  Greeks  were  made  to 
glorify  the  city.  This  spirit  of  independence  had  both  a  good 
and  a  bad  effect.  On  the  one  hand,  it  tended  to  foster  free 
institutions  and  the  forms  of  local  self-government.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  prevented  the  permanent  union  of  Greece  and 
the  development  of  a  national  state. 

Amphictyonies  or  City  Leagues. — Although  the  Greek  cities 
were  politically  independent  of  one  another,  they  sometimes 
united  themselves  into  leagues  or  confederacies,  called  "am- 
phictyonies."  These  leagues  were  often  formed  to  maintain 
the  worship  of  some  common  deity,  or  to  promote  common 
commercial  interests,  or  to  protect  the  cities  against  a  com- 
mon foe.  The  members  of  these  associations  often  professed  to 
believe  that  they  were  descended  from  some  common  ancestor, 
and  were  under  the  protection  of  the  same  god.  Sometimes 
one  city  obtained  the  leadership,  or  "  hegemony,"  over  the  rest; 
but  if  such  a  leadership  became  oppressive,  it  generally  pro- 
voked a  revolt  on  the  part  of  the  subject  cities.  In  the  course  of 
our  study  we  shall  have  our  attention  called  to  a  number  of 
these  Greek  confederacies,  like  the  Amphictyon'ic  League  with 
its  center  at  Delphi,  the  Peloponnesian  League  under  Sparta, 
the  Boeotian  League  under  Thebes,  the  Deli  an  Confederacy 
under  Athens,  and  in  later  times  the  Achaean  and  ^Etolian 
leagues  organized  against  Macedonia. 

II.     POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  GREECE 

Tendency  to  Revolution. — When  we  consider  the  political 
organization  of  the  Greek  city  states,  we  must  not  suppose  that 
they  always  remained  in  the  simple  and  primitive  condition 


106  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

which  we  have  just  described.  Their  political  life,  on  the  con- 
trary, was  one  of  continual  activity  and  change.  One  form  of 
government  succeeded  another  as  the  king,  or  the  nobles,  or 
the  people  gained  the  upper  hand.  Although  the  different 
cities  presented  a  great  diversity  in  their  political  life,  we  can 
trace  a  general  tendency  in  the  direction  of  more  democratic 
ideas  and  freer  institutions. 

From  Monarchy  to  Aristocracy. — In  the  earliest  times,  the 
king  was  the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  government.  This 
supremacy  of  the  king  and  the  royal  family  is  what  constitutes 
a  monarchy.  When  the  rule  of  the  king  became  oppressive, 
the  political  power  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  nobles.  The 
supremacy  of  such  a  class  of  influential  men  in  the  state  is 
what  constitutes  an  aristocracy.  If  the  power  is  restricted  to 
a  very  few  persons,  the  government  is  called  an  oligarchy.  At 
an  early  period  the  political  authority  in  the  cities  passed  from 
the  hands  of  the  king  to  the  hands  of  the  nobles;  that  is,  there 
was  a  transition  from  monarchy  to  aristocracy  or  oligarchy. 

From  Aristocracy  to  Tyranny. — When  the  nobles  obtained 
the  supreme  power  in  the  city,  they  were  tempted  to  use  it  for 
their  own  interests,  at  the  expense  of  the  people  in  general. 
The  city  population  thus  came  to  be  divided  into  two  parties, 
the  aristocratic  and  democratic  parties — the  former  striving  to 
maintain  their  own  power  and  privileges,  and  the  latter  strug- 
gling to  obtain  an  equality  of  rights.  In  the  midst  of  these 
popular  discontents  there  appeared  certain  men  whom  the 
Greeks  called  "  tyrants."  The  so-called  tyrant  was  not  neces- 
sarily a  despotic  ruler,  but  a  man  who  had  seized  the  power  of 
the  state  in  an  irregular  way.  He  might  be  a  patriot,  working 
for  the  interests  of  the  people,  or  he  might  be  a  demagogue, 
working  for  his  own  interests.  In  either  case,  he  was  an  enemy 
to  the  oligarchy,  and  his  triumph  meant  the  overthrow  of  the 
jiristocratic  power.  The  tyrants  were  in  fact  "the  means  of 
breaking  down  the  oligarchies  in  the  interests  of  the  people" 
(Abbott). 


POLITICAL   GROWTH   AND  EXPANSION  10? 

From  Tyranny  to  Democracy. — The  one-man  power  was  es- 
tablished in  many  of  the  cities  of  Greece.  As  long  as  the 
tyrants  looked  after  the  interests  of  the  people,  their  rule  was 
tolerated.  But  whenever  and  wherever  they  became  selfish, 
ambitious,  and  oppressive,  they  were  detested.  While  in  some 
cases  the  city  might  revert  to  an  oligarchy,  the  tyranny  more 
often  led  to  democracy.  The  so-called  "  age  of  tyrants  "  thus 
formed,  generally  speaking,  a  period  of  transition  to  the  demo- 
cratic form  of  government;  and  democracy  came  to  be  more 
highly  developed  in  Greece  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  an- 
cient world. 

The  many  different  states  of  Greece,  however,  were  not 
equally  successful  in  obtaining  a  democratic  government.  In 
some  states  we  see  the  power  remaining  in  the  hands  of  a  small 
part  of  the  people,  resulting  in  the  permanent  establishment 
of  an  aristocracy  or  oligarchy.  Such  aristocratic  governments 
were  developed  in  Sparta ;  in  Thebes  of  Bceotia ;  in  Chalcis  and 
Eretria  on  the  island  of  Eubcea ;  and  also  in  Corinth,  Meg'ara, 
and  Sicyon  on  or  near  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  In  other 
cities,  we  see  the  political  power  transferred  to  the  great  body 
of  citizens,  resulting  in  the  growth  of  a  well-organized  demo- 
cratic state.  The  most  important  democratic  cities  were  Ath- 
ens, Argos,  and  Elis.  Of  these  various  cities  we  may  look  upon 
Sparta  and  Athens  as  the  most  important,  for  they  represented 
the  two  extreme  tendencies  in  the  political  development  of 
Greece — the  former  showing  the  tendency  toward  oligarchy, 
and  the  latter  the  tendency  toward  democracy. 

III.    EXPANSION  OF  GREECE  BY  COLONIZATION 

Causes  of  Colonial  Expansion. — At  the  same  time  that  the 
cities  of  Hellas  were  working  out  the  problem  of  free  govern- 
ment, the  boundaries  of  the  Hellenic  world  were  widening  by 
the  establishment  of  colonies.  The  causes  leading  to  the  colo- 
nial expansion  of  Greece  were  various.  In  the  first  place,  the 


1C8  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

growth  of  population  required  the  formation  of  new  settle- 
ments; and  these  could  be  formed  only  in  the  unoccupied  lands 
which  bordered  upon  the  adjoining  seas.  In  the  next  place, 
the  political  discontent  resulting  from  aristocratic  oppression 
led  many  people  to  seek  greater  freedom  in  new  settlements; 
hence  we  find  a  large  number  of  colonies  established  by  cities 
subject  to  aristocratic  rule.  Finally,  the  growing  spirit  of  com- 
merce furnished  a  strong  impulse  to  colonization.  The  coasts 
of  the  ^Egean  were  indented  with  natural  harbors;  and  the 
Greeks  early  derived  from  the  Phoenicians  the  spirit  of  com- 
merce and  shared  with  them  the  trade  routes  of  the  sea.  With 
the  decline  of  the  Phoenician  power,  the  Greeks  became  the 
leading  commercial  people  of  the  East.  Like  the  Phoenicians, 
they  dotted  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  with  their  trad- 
ing posts.  Greece  thus  became  the  mother  of  colonies,  and 
from  the  eighth  to  the  sixth  century  (750-550  B.  c.)  the  terri- 
tory of  Hellas  was  continually  growing  wider  and  wider. 

Character  of  the  Greek  Colony. — The  Greek  colony  was  a 
community  of  Greek  citizens  transported  to  a  new  land.  It 
was  generaljy  the  offshoot  of  a  single  city,  although  one  colony 
might  sometimes  be  formed  by  the  people  of  different  cities. 
The  Greek  colony  carried  with  it  the  traditions,  the  customs, 
the  language,  and  the  religion  of  the  parent  city.  Wherever 
it  might  be  planted,  it  bore  the  blossoms  and  fruits  of  Greek 
culture.  The  founding  of  a  colony  was  a  matter  of  so  much 
importance  that  it  was  customary  to  consult  the  oracle  at  Del- 
phi to  ascertain  whether  the  undertaking  would  meet  with  the 
divine  sanction.  If  the  response  was  favorable,  a  "  founder  " 
was  appointed  to  lead  the  colonists  to  their  new  home.  The 
sacred  fire  taken  from  the  altar  of  the  parent  city  was  carried 
with  the  colonists  as  a  symbol  of  their  filial  devotion.  Tin-  in- 
fant colony  worshiped  the  same  gods  as  the  parent  city.  ;m<!  in 
every  way  showed  the  sacred  reverence  due  from  ;i  <1  aim-liter  to 
a  mother.  But  in  its  political  life  the  colony  was  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  parent  state.  Though  bound  by  filial  affection, 


POLITICAL   GROWTH   AND   EXPANSION  109 

it  was  not  subject  to  parental  authority.  It  formed  its  own  gov- 
ernment, made  its  own  laws,  and  was  expected  to  work  out 
its  own  destiny.1 

The  Colonizing  Cities. — The  cities  of  Greece  were  not 
equally  zealous  in  the  planting  of  colonies.  Of  the  chief  cities, 
Athens  was  one  of  the  least  conspicuous  in  this  .movement. 
This  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  she  was  at  first  more 
devoted  to  politics  than  to  commerce,  or  to  the  fact  that  her 
citizens  were  less  discontented  than  those  of  other  cities. 
Sparta,  on  account  of  her  distance  from  the  sea,  was  also  not 
important 'as  a  colonizing  state.  But  her  subjects — especially 
the  Messenians — were  sometimes  driven  by  her  oppressive  gov- 
ernment to  seek  a  refuge  beyond  her  dominion.  Of  the  cities 
of  Greece  proper  the  foremost  in  the  colonizing  movement  was 
Chalcis,  situated  on  the  island  of  Eubcea.  This  city  had  a  fa- 
vorable seaboard.  It  com- 
manded the  copper  trade 
of  the  East,  and  its  aris- 
tocratic government  was  a 
cause  of  popular  discon- 
tent. These  facts  are  suf- 

flcient  to  explain  its  colo-  COIN  OF  ERETRIA 

nizing  spirit.    Next  after 

Chalcis  should  be  mentioned  the  neighboring  city  of  Eretria; 
and  then  Megara  and  Corinth,  both  of  which  were  favorably 
situated  for  commerce,  and  were  often  misruled  by  an  oppress- 
ive oligarchy.  But  the  city  which  surpassed  all  others  as  a 
colonizing  center  was  situated  not  in  Europe,  but  in  Asia.  This 
was  Miletus,  the  most  celebrated  city  of  Ionia.  It  possessed 
four  large  harbors,  and  seems  to  have  fallen  heir  to  the  com- 
mercial enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians.  Miletus  is  said  to  have 
been  the  mother  of  eighty  colonies.  Other  cities  of  Ionia 

1  This  statement  does  not  apply  to  the  subject  colonies,  or  "cle'ruchies," 
sent  out  by  Athens  as  fc  means  of  maintaining  her  influence  in  a  foreign 
land.  In  this  case  the  settlers  retained  their  political  relations  and  rights 
*s  members  of  the  parent  state. 


MAI?  l^o. 


c 

JHEATER  HEIJLAS 

Sixth  Century  B.C. 

Chief  Seats  of  Colonization. 
J/onians  J7^    ~\sEolians  and  Achceana 
\Dorians  IT*"  ^^Phoenicians 

160  200  3<K)  460 

East       25       from  Greenwich 


111 


LIST  OF  PRINCIPAL  GREEK  COLONIES 


The  name  of  the  parent  colony  is  placed  in  parenthesis,  together  with 
the  date  of  settlement  when  known.  These  dates  can  be  regarded  as  only 
approximate,  and  are  variously  given  by  different  authorities  ;  the  dates 
below  are  generally  those  accepted  by  Grote. 


I.  EASTERN  COLONIES. 

1.  Northern  ^Egean. 

Methone  (Eretria,  720  B.C.). 
Mende  (Eretria). 
Torone  (Chalcis). 
Olynthus  (Chalcis,  480  B.C.). 
Potidaea  (Corinth). 
Abdera  (Teos,  553  B.C.). 
Maronea  (Chios). 
JEnos  (JSolia). 

2.  Propontis. 

Abydos  (Miletus). 
Lampsacus  (Miletus,  650  B.C.). 
Cyzicus  (Miletus,  756  B.C.). 
Chalcedon  (Megara,  674  B.C.). 
Byzantium  (Megara, 657  B.C.). 
Perinthus  (Samos,  600  B.C.). 
Sestos  (JEolia). 

3.  Euxine  or  Black  Sea. 

(a)  Southern  and  Eastern  Coast. 

He*aclea  (Megara,  560  B.C.). 

Sinope  (Miletus,  770  B.C.). 

Trapezus  (Sinope). 

Phasis  (Miletus). 

Dioscurias  (Miletus). 
(6)  Western  and  Northern  Coast. 

Apollonia  (Miletus). 

Mesembria  (Megara). 

Odessus  (Miletus). 

Istrus  (Miletus). 

Olbia  (Miletus). 

Heraclea  (Heraclea  Pontica). 

Tanais^Miletus?). 

Phanagoria  (Miletus). 

4.  Africa. 

Naucratis  (Miletus,  660  B.C.). 
Cyrene  (Thera). 
Barca  (Cyrene). 


II.  WESTERN  COLONIES. 

1.  Adriatic  Coast. 

Corcyra  (Corinth,  730  B.C.). 
Ambracia  (Corinth,  650  H.C.). 
Apollonia  (Corinth,  600  B.C.). 
Epidamnus     (Corcyra,     625 
B.C.). 

2.  Italy. 

(a)  Southern  Coast. 

Tarentuui  (Sparta,  707  B.C.). 

Sybaris  (Achaia,  720  B.C.). 

Croton  (Achaia,  710  B.C.). 

Locri  (Locris,  683  B.C.). 

Rhegium  (Chalcis,  720  B.C.). 
(6)  Western  Coast 

Cumse  (Chalcis,  1050  B.C.  ?). 

Neapolis  (Cumse). 

Posidonia  (Achaia). 

Velia  (Phocsea,  550  B.C.). 

3.  Sicily. 

(a}  Ionian  Colonies. 

Naxos  (Chalcis,  735  B.C.). 

Catana  (Naxos,  729  B.C.). 

Zancle  (Chalcis,  728  B.C.). 

Himera  (Zancle,  648  B.C.). 
(6)  Dorian  Colonies. 

Syracuse  (Corinth,  734  B.C.). 

Gela  (Rhodes,  690  B.C.). 

Agrigentum  (Gela,  582  B.C.). 

Selinus  (Megara,  630  B.C.). 

4.  Gaul. 

Massilia  (Phocsea,  697  B.C.). 
Olbia  (Massilia). 


POLITICAL   GROWTH    AM)    KM 'A. \SION  113 

also  sent  out  some  colonies.  A  few  colonies  were  established 
by  the  .  Koliun  cities  of  the  north,  and  a  still  less  number  by 
the  Dorian  cities  of  the  south  of  Asia  Minor. 

Areas  of  Colonization. — The  lands  open  to  Greek  coloniza- 
tion were  the  unoccupied  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Black  seas.  Some  of  these  lands  had  already  been  held  by 
Phoenician  colonists;  but  the  decline  of  Phoenicia  gave  an  op- 
portunity to  the  Greeks,  either  to  take  possession  of  the  old 
Phoenician  sites,  or  to  establish  new  settlements.  The  new 
lands  were  generally  inhabited  by  a  barbarous  people;  but  the 
native  products  of  these  lands  afforded  a  strong  inducement  to 
Grecian  traders.  There  were  two  general  areas  open  to  coloni- 
zation, which  we  may  distinguish  as  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern. The  eastern  area  comprised  the  northern  coasts  of  the 
^Egean  Sea;  the  shores  of  the  Propon'tis  with  its  tributary 
straits,  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bosphorus;  the  extensive  coast 
of  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea;  and  also  the  northeastern  coast  of 
Africa.  The  western  area  comprised  the  western  coasts  of 
Illyr'icum  and  Epirus;  the  coasts  of  southern  Italy  (Magna 
Graecia)  and  Sicily;  and  the  seaboards  of  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean, including  southern  Gaul,  and  extending  along  the 
shores  of  Spain.  For  the  most  important  colonies  study  pages 
110-112. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  EARLY  CITY  STATE.— Importance  of  the  Greek  Cities.— 
Elements  of  the  City  State. — Government  of  the  City  State. — In- 
dependence of  the  City  States. — Amphictyonies  or  City  Leagues. 

II.  POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  GREECE. — Tendency  to  Revolu- 
tion.— From    Monarchy    to    Aristocracy. — From    Aristocracy    to 
Tyranny. — From  Tyranny  to  Democracy. 

III.  EXPANSION  OF  GREECE  BY  COLONIZATION. — Causes  of  Colo- 
nial Expansion. — Character  of  the  Greek  Colony. — The  Colonizing1 
Cities. — Areas  of  Colonization. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Cox,  History,   Ch.   2,   "Origin  and   Growth   of  Hellenic  Civiliza- 
tion"   (10)  .* 

1The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topip  in  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  hook  will  be  found. 

MOEEY'S   ANCIENT   HIST. —  7 


114  THE   GREEK   WOULD 

Allcroft,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  9,  "Evolution  of  Governments";  Ch.  10,  "Age 
of  Tyrants"  (10). 

Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  Introduction,  "Sketch  of  Constitutional  His- 
tory"; Ch.  11,  "The  Greek  Colonies"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  20,  "Political  Development  of  the  Greek 
States";  Ch.  21,  "Greek  Colonization"  (10). 

Whibley,  Greek  Oligarchies,  Ch.  3,  "Historical  Development  of 
Constitution"  (11). 

Greenidg-e,  Ch.  2,  "Early  Development  of  the  Greek  Constitu- 
tions; Monarchy,  Aristocracy,  Tyranny  to  Constitutional 
Government";  Ch.  3,  "Colonization"  (11). 

Fowler,  W.  W.,  Ch.  2,  "Genesis  of  the  City  State";  Ch.  4,  "Rise 
of  Aristocratic  Government";  Ch.  5,  "Transition  from  Aris- 
tocracy to  Democracy"  (11). 

Oman,  Ch.  9,  "The  Age  of  Colonization"   (10). 

Smith,  Wm.,  Ch.  12,  "History  of  the  Greek  Colonies"   (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  3,  "The  Hellenes  beyond  the  Archi- 
pelago" (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  2,  "The  Expansion  of  Greece";  pp.  95-102  (Sicily); 
p.  115  (Naucratis);  pp.  116,  117  (Gyrene)  (10). 

Herodotus,  Bk.  III.,  Chs.  39-56,  120-125  (Polycrates,  tyrant  of 
Samos)  (17). 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE  TYPICAL  CITY  STATES—  SPARTA  AND  ATHENS 
I.     THE  ARISTOCRATIC  CITY  STATE,  SPARTA 

The  Dorians  and  Sparta.  —  In  their  conquest  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus (p.  93),  the  Dorians  took  possession  of  three  important 
countries  —  Argolis,  Laconia,  and  Messenia.  Their  first  im- 
portant cities  arose  in  Argolis;  chief  of  them  was  Argos.  One 

of  the  rulers  of  Argos, 
Phi'don  by  name,  was  es- 
pecially noted  as  the  man 
who  introduced  a  system 
of  weights  and  measures, 

and     who    established    a 
Com  OP  PHIDOX 


money.    From  the  city  of  Argos  as  a  center,  the  Dorians  sub- 
dued the  neighboring  towns  of  Corinth,  Megara,  and  Sicyon. 


CITY    STATES—  SPA  1JT A    AND   ATHENS  115 

But  all  the  Dorian  cities  were  at  last  overshadowed  by  Sparta, 
a  town  of  Laconia,  which  we  may  study  as  the  typical  city 
state  of  the  Dorian  race.  Situated  on  the  Kuro'tas  River,  it 
was  at  first  a  mere  military  garrison,  struggling  to  maintain 
itself  against  a  hostile  people.  By  degrees  it  gained  in  strength 
until  it  became  the  center  of  the  Dorian  civilization.  This  re- 
markable city  owed  its  success 
to  its  peculiar  organization 
and  discipline,  said  to  have 
Invn  established  by  Lycur'gus. 
The  stories  which  are  told  of 
Lycurgus  are  largely  mythical. 
It  is  said  that  he  reorganized, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Del- 
phic oracle,  the  whole  social 
and  political  system  of  Sparta; 
and  that,  having  obtained  from 
the  people  a  solemn  oath  to 
make  no  changes  in  his  laws 
during  his  absence,  he  left  the 
city  and  never  returned.  With- 
out attempting  to  criticise  the  LYCURGUS  (So-called) 
"  myth  of  Lycurgus,"  which  is  told  by  Plutarch,  let  us  review 
the  Spartan  institutions  as  they  existed  in  historical  times. 

Divisions  of  the  People  in  Sparta. — The  first  thing  we  notice 
in  Sparta  is  the  division  of  the  whole  population  into  three 
classes — which  had  evidently  resulted  from  the  Dorian  con- 
quest of  the  Peloponnesus. 

(1)  The  upper  class  consisted  of  the  Spartans  themselves, 
the  descendants  of  the  Dorian  conquerors.  They  were  the  free 
inhabitants  of  the  Spartan  city,  and  were  the  sole  possessors  of 
political  rights  and  privileges.  They  formed  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  the  entire  population — not  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand men  capable  of  bearing  arms.  They  received  the  best 
portions  of  the  land;  but  they  were  forbidden  themselves  to 


116  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

till  the  soil,  or  to  do  the  work  of  artisans  or  traders.     Their 
sole  occupation  was  war  and  service  to  the  state. 

(2)  The    next    class    comprised    the    Perioe'ci    (dwellers 
around),  who  formed  a  large  part  of  the  conquered  people. 
They  lived  in  the  neighboring  towns,  farmed  the  lands  of  the 
state,  and  engaged  in  manufactures  and  commerce.    They  were 
personally  free;  but  were  forced  to  pay  tribute  to  Sparta.    They 
were,  moreover,  called  upon  to  serve  in  the  Spartan  army  in 
time  of  war,  and  were  even  assigned  to  posts  of  command. 

(3)  The  lowest  class  were  the  Helots,  or  serfs,  who  tilled  the 
soil  allotted  to  the  citizens.     They  belonged  to  the  state,  and 
could  not  be  sold  by  their  Spartan  masters.   They  formed  the 
largest  part  of  the  population.    They  had  no  rights,  and  their 
condition  was  wretched. 

The  Spartan  Government. — The  form  of  the  government  of 
Sparta  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  system  which  prevailed  in  the 
tribal  state  of  Homeric  times.  This  we  see  in  the  three 
branches  of  the  early  government,  the  kingship,  the  senate,  and 
the  assembly. 

(1)  At  the  head  of  the  state  were  two  kings,  members  of 
distinct  royal  families.    The  origin  of  this  double  kingship  it  is 
difficult  to  determine.     The  kings  acted  as  a  restraint  upon 
each  other,  and  this  tended  to  weaken  the  royal  power. 

(2)  A  more  important  element  of  the  state  was  the  senate 
(gerou'sia),  composed  of  thirty  of  the  leading  citizens,  includ- 
ing the  two  kings.    In  early  times  the  members  of  the  senate 
were  no  doubt  the  chiefs  of  the  clans  which  had  united  to  form 
the  state.    But  in  historical  times  they  were  elected  by  the  as- 
sembly.   They  were  at  least  sixty  years  of  age,  and  held  their 
position  for  life.    Originally  the  senators  were  simply  the  ad- 
visers of  the  kings;  but  they  came  to  be  the  sharers  of  the 
royal  power.     They  not  only  determined  largely  the  policy  <>f 
the  kin^s.  hut  were  judges  in  eriminal  ease-;,  and  prepared  the 
matters  which  came  hefnre  the  assembly. 

(3)  The  assembly  (apel'la)  consisted  of  all  Spartan  ei'i/ens 


CITY    STATES^SPARTA    AND    ATM  I  -NS 

above  thirty  years  of  age.  It  not  only  elected  the  senators,  but 
decided  upon  the  most  important  matters  of  state.  It  ratified 
the  laws,  determined  questions  of  war  and  peace,  and  settled 
disputes  regarding  the  royal  succession.  The  highest  power 
thus  rested  in  the  body  of  Spartan  citizens;  and  in  this  respect 
the  state  might  be  called  a  democracy.  But  when  we  consider 
the  fact  that  the  body  of  citizens  formed  but  a  small  part  of 
the  whole  population,  the  government  can  more  properly  be 
regarded  as  an  aristocracy. 

(4)  We  should  not  have  a  complete  view  of  the  Spartan  con- 
stitution if  we  failed  to  notice  the  ephors  (watchers),  who  were 
officers  peculiar  to  Sparta.  They  were  five  in  number,  and 
formed  a  kind  of  supervisory  board.  They  were  elected  by  the 
assembly  each  year  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  people  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  kings  and  the  senate.  They  came  in 
time  to  be  the  "guardians  of  the  constitution"  and  the  real 
rulers  of  the  state. 

Spartan  Education  and  Discipline. — The  Spartans  evidently 
believed  that  the  character  of  a  nation  depends  upon  the  train- 
ing of  its  children.  If  the  state  is  to  be  prepared  for  war,  the 
children  must  be  physically  strong  and  inured  to  hardships 
akin  to  those  of  war.  The  Spartan  elders  decided  whether  each 
child,  at  birth,  was  sufficiently  strong  to  be  reared,  or  whether 
he  should  be  exposed  to  the  wild  beasts.  At  the  age  of  seven 
the  boy  was  taken  from  his  mother's  care  and  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  public  trainers.  From  this  time  he  was  subject 
to  a  training  which  was  severe,  and  which  to  us  seems  brutal; 
but  to  the  Spartans  it. seemed  the  necessary  education  for  a 
soldier's  life.  The  boy  was  obliged  to  prepare  his  own  meals; 
to  wear  the  same  clothing  summer  and  winter;  to  sleep  on  a 
bed  of  rushes ;  to  be  hardened  by  the  lash  that  he  might  better 
endure  the  hardships  of  the  camp.  To  develop  his  physical 
strength  and  agility,  he  was  trained  in  gymnastic  exercises,  in 
running,  wrestling,  and  throwing  the  javelin. 

The  supervision  of  the  state  was  exercised  not  only  over  the 


US  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

training  of  the  young,  but  over  the  lives  of  all  citizens.  Every 
form  of  luxury  was  discouraged.  The  dress  was  simple.  The 
houses  were  humble  and  unadorned.  Money  was  not  lavished 
upon  public  buildings  and  works  of  art.  The  temptations  to  a 
life  of  luxury  were  withstood,  especially  by  the  institution  of 
public  meals  (syssitia) .  The  men  were  organized  in  companies, 
and  each  one  contributed  to  the  common  meal.  They  were 
withdrawn  from  their  families,  and  lived  in  public  barracks. 
Home  life  was  thus  destroyed  in  the  interest  of  the  state.  The 
men  were  carefully  organized,  and  trained  in  military  evolu- 
tions ;  the  simple  and  severe  discipline  of  the  camp  was  main- 
tained in  peace  as  well  as  in  war;  and  as  a  result  of  this  the 
Spartans  came  to  have  the  most  efficient  army  of  Greece,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  of  the  world  at  that  time. 

The  Conquests  of  Sparta;  the  Peloponnesian  League.— 
With  such  military  training  and  discipline  Sparta  was  able  to 
extend  and  maintain  her  authority  over  the  Peloponnesus.  She 
first  gained  possession  of  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  subduing 
the  cities  of  Amyclae  and  Helos.  The  territory  of  Cynuria  was 
then  wrested  from  Argos,  which  brought  the  whole  of  Laconia 
under  Spartan  authority.  After  two  long  and  severe  wars — 
each  one  lasting  about  twenty  years — Sparta  subdued  the 
neighboring  district  of  Messenia,  west  of  the  Tayg'etus  moun- 
tains. These  conflicts  are  known  as  the  "  Messenian  Wars," 
and  belong  to  the  most  heroic  period  of  Spartan  history  (about 
750-650  B.  c. ).  Later  the  city  of  Tegea  with  the  surrounding 
territory  of  Arcadia  was  subdued.  Finally,  Sparta  gained  a 
controlling  influence  in  Elis,  especially  in  the  management  of 
the  national  games  at  Olympia. 

All  the  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus  (except  Argos  and  the 
towns  of  Achaia)  were  joined  in  a  confederacy  known  as  the 
"  Peloponnesian  League."  Each  city  was  allowed  to  retain 
its  local  independence,  but  was  joined  to  Sparta  by  a  treaty, 
in  which  the  city  agreed  to  furnish  to  Sparta  a  certain  num- 
ber of  troops  in  time  of  war.  Every  city  of  the  league  had 


CITY    STATES—  SPAHTA    AND    ATHENS 


119 


6         10        20        30        40        50 


THE  PELOPONNESUS 

an  equal  voice  in  a  federal  council,  which  met  at  Sparta  and 
which  was  supposed  to  regulate  matters  of  general  interest. 
In  this  confederacy  Sparta  was  the  leader;  and  she  exercised 
her  influence  in  striving  to  extend  her  aristocratic  institutions 
throughout  Greece. 

Position  of  Sparta  in  Greece. — While  there  are  many  things 
that  we  might  criticise  in  the  narrow  government,  the  austere 
training,  and  the  domineering  policy  of  Sparta,  we  must  con- 
fess that  she  contributed  much  to  the  future  greatness  of 
Greece.  She  set  an  example  of  simplicity  in  life,  of  self-con- 
trol, of  patriotic  devotion,  of  respect  for  existing  institutions. 
She  showed  the  importance  of  physical  education,  of  healthy, 
strong,  and  symmetrical  bodies;  and  she  gave  Greece  an  ideal 


120  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

of  physical  manhood  which  furnished  an  inspiration  to  Greek 
sculpture.  She  also  set  a  pattern  of  military  organization  by 
which  in  the  subsequent  period  of  foreign  invasions  Greece 
*ras  saved  from  destruction.  Although  Sparta  did  not  repre- 
sent the  highest  culture  of  Greece,  she  did  much  to  make  that 
highest  culture  possible. 

II.     THE  DEMOCRATIC  CITY  STATE,  ATHENS 

The  Ancient  Monarchy  of  Athens. — In  marked  contrast  to 
Sparta,  the  aristocratic  and  military  center  of  the  Peloponne- 
sus, stood  Athens,  which  came  to  be  the  democratic  and  intel- 
lectual center  of  all  Greece.  As  Sparta  represented  the  Dorians, 
Athens  was  the  chief  representative  of  the  Ionian  people.  The 
city  state  which  grew  up  about  Athens  comprised  all  the  towns 
of  Attica,  which  were  united  under  a  common  government. 
The  union -of  these  towns  was  ascribed  to  the  mythical  king 
Theseus.  Our  knowledge  of  this  early  period  is  based  almost 
entirely  upon  traditions;  but  we  may  be  quite  certain  that  the 
earliest  government  of  Athens  was  a  monarchy  of  the  Homeric 
type — with  a  king,  a  con  noil,  and  an  assembly. 

Divisions  of  the  People  in  Attica. — In  each  of  the  Ionian 
towns  of  Attica  there  were  certain  divisions  of  the  people  which 
remained  after  the  towns  were  united  under  the  common 
monarchy.  In  the  first  place,  there  were  the  four  Ionian  tribes 
which  bore  distinct  names  (Geleoritcs,  Hopletes,  ^Egic'ores. 
and  Ar'gades)  and  which  were  each  made  up  of  phratries  and 
chins.  In  the  next  place,  there  were  three  class  divisions,  upon 
which  were  based  social  rank  and  political  privileges:  (1)  the 
well-born,  or  nobles  (Eupat'ridte) ,  (2)  the  farmers  (Gmni'- 
ori),  and  (3)  the  artisans  (Demiurgi).  Of  these  classes  the 
Eu'patrids  stood  nearest  to  the  king.  They  were  the  only  per- 
sons who  had  political  privileges;  and  from  them  the  king 
chose  the  members  of  his  council.  If  the  freemen  were  ever 
called  together  in  an  assembly,  it  was  only  <m  ran-  occasions. 


CITY    STATES— SPARTA    AND    ATHENS 

The  Growth  of  the  Archonship :  Eupatrid  Rule.— The  first 
important  changes  in  the  Athenian  government  were  due  to 
the  decline  of  the  power  of  the  king,  resulting  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  three  archons  to  take  his  place.  One  was  the  chief 
archon,  after  whom  the  year  was  named ;  another  was  the  war 
archon  (called  the  polemarch),  who  commanded  the  army;  the 
third  was  the  king-archon,  who  represented  the  old  king  as 
priest  of  the  common  religion.  Afterward,  there  came  to  be 
appointed  in  addition  six  junior  archons,  called  by  way  of  dis- 
tinction the  thesmoth'etce,  or  guardians  of  the  law.  The  nine 
archons  thus  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  old  kings  as  the 
chief  rulers  of  the  state.  As  these  new  officers  were  chosen 
by,  and  from,  the  body  of  nobles,  or  Eupatrids,  Athens  came 
to  have  a  real  aristocratic  government.  The  archons  were 
chosen  for  a  year;  and  after  their  term  of  office  had  expired, 
they  became  members  of  the  council  for  life.  This  council  took 
the  place  of  the  old  council  of  the  king.  It  was  accustomed  to 
meet  on  the  hill  of  Ares  (Mars),  and  was  hence  called  the 
"  Council  of  the  Areop'agus."  The  people  (farmers  and  arti- 
sans) at  this  time  had  practically  no  share  in  the  government. 
The  Eupatrids  were  the  state.  The  political  history  of  Athens, 
from  this  time,  is  most  interesting  to  us,  because  it  shows  the 
successive  changes  by  which  the  Athenian  government  was 
transformed  from  an  aristocracy  into  a  democracy.  It  is  also 
interesting  because  it  presents  to  us  some  of  the  most  noted 
men  of  Athens — Draco,  Solon,  Pisis'tratus,  and  Clis'thenes. 

The  Laws  of  Draco  (about  621  B.  c.). — The  rule  of  the 
nobles  was  often  harsh  and  oppressive,  and  led  to  many  dis- 
turbances.1 The  laws  of  this  time  existed  only  in  the  form  of 
unwritten  customs,  which  were  practically  unknown  to  the 
common  people  and  which  the  nobles  could  interpret  as  they 

irThe  conspiracy  of  Cylon  which  took  place  about  this  time  was  an 
incident  in  these  disturbances;  but  it  has  no  special  significance  except  as 
beins  the  first  attempt  at  a  "tyranny,"  and  as  being  the  occasion  of  the 
"accursing"  of  the  family  of  the  Alcmwon'ida?.  Cylon  was  not  assisted  by 
the  people,  and  his  conspiracy  only  indirectly  led  to  a  better  state  of  things. 


TEE   GREEK    WORLD 

saw  fit.  Draco,  one  of  the  archons.  was  authorized  to  put  these 
laws  into  a  written  form,  so  that  they  might  be  known  to  all. 
The  harsh  character  of  the  laws  became  evident  as  soon  as  they 
were  published;  so  that  it  was  afterward  said  that  the  laws 
of  Draco  were  "  written  not  in  ink  but  in  blood."  If  Draco 
made  any  change  in  the  existing  laws,  it  was  a  beneficial  change 
relating  to  the  law  of  homicide.  Hitherto,  if  a  man  had  slain 
another,  whether  accidentally  or  willfully,  he  might  be  pur- 
sued and  killed  by  the  relatives  of  the  deceased — and  that 
without  trial.  But  Draco  made  a  distinction  between  acciden- 
tal and  willful  homicide,  and  this  was  to  be  determined  by  a 
trial  before  a  court. 

It  is  probable  that  Draco  made  some  political  changes  in  the 
way  of  extending  the  franchise — so  that  all  Ionian  tribesmen 
who  were  wealthy  enough  to  furnish  themselves  with  heavy 
armor  received  the  right  to  vote.  This  tended  to  make  wealth, 
as  well  as  blood,  a  basis  of  political  rights.  It  is  also  probable 
that  Draco  established — in  addition  to  the  old  council  of  the 
Areopagus — a  new  council  of  four  hundred  and  one  members, 
to  be  elected  by  lot  from  all  those  who  possessed  the  franchise.1 
The  legislation  and  reforms  of  Draco  did  not,  however,  relieve 
to  any  extent  the  condition  of  the  common  people,  for  they  did 
not  strike  at  the  root  of  the  existing  evils. 

The  Reforms  of  Solon  (about  594  B.  c.). — The  government 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  high-born  Eupatrids  and  of  those 
who  were  rich  enough  to  furnish  heavy  armor.  The  poorer 
classes  were  not  only  excluded  from  the  government,  but  were 
held  in  a  state  of  practical  bondage  to  the  rich.  "  The  whole 
country,"  says  Aristotle,  "  was  in  the  hands  of  a  few  persons; 
and  if  the  poor  tenants  failed  to  pay  their  rent,  they  were  liable 
to  be  reduced  to  slavery,  and  their  children  with  them " 
(Athenian  Constitution,  Ch.  2).  Solon,  who  was  regarded  as 

*On  these  disputed  points  and  the  apparent  discrepancy  between  Aris- 
totle's "Politics"  and  the  "Athenian  Constitution,"  see  <:ustnv  Cilhort, 
Constitutional  Antiquities  of  Sparta  and  Athens,  Kim.  101..  189b,  pp. 
xxxiii-xxxix,  and  p.  119,  note. 


CITY    STATES— SPARTA    AND   ATHENS  123 

one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  was  elected  to  the  archon- 
ship,  with  full  authority  to  remedy  the  evils  of  the  state.  He 
made  three  important  reforms. 

(1)  The  first  of  these  reforms  was  to  remove  the  burdens 
resting  upon  the  poorer  classes. 

He  freed  all  those  who  had 
heen  sold  into  slavery  for  debt, 
and  called  back  all  those  who 
had  fled  into  exile  to  escape 
the  cruelty  of  their  masters. 
He  canceled  the  old  debts,  and 
abolished  the  practice  of  re- 
ducing men  to  slavery  on  ac- 
count of  debt. 

(2)  His  next  reform  was  to 
extend   the    franchise    to   the 
poorer  classes.     There  had  al- 
ready   been     established    -(at 
some  time  not  exactly  known) 

four     "census     classes,"     in  SOLON  (So-called) 

which  the  members  of  the  Ionian  tribes  were  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  income  which  persons  received.  These 
classes  had  previously  been  used  as  a  basis  for  the  apportion- 
ment of  the  taxes.  Solon  now  used  these  classes  as  a  basis  for 
the  distribution  of  political  rights.  For  example,  the  archons 
were  to  be  elected  from  the  first  class  only;  and  all  the  inferior 
officers  were  to  be  chosen  from  the  first,  second,  or  third  class. 
But  all  the  classes — including  the  fourth,  called  the  Tthe'tes — 
received  the  right  to  vote  in  the  assembly  for  all  officers.  This 
gave  to  the  assembly  a  democratic  character,  although  it  was  at 
this  time  chiefly  a  voting  or  election  body,  having  little  to  do 
with  the  actual  making  of  the  laws.  Solon  also  established  a 
popular  court  (helice'a),  in  which  all  citizens,  including  the 
Thetes,  could  sit  as  jurors. 

(3)  The  third  important  reform  of  Solon  was  the  reorgani- 


124  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

zation  of  the  council.  He  retained  the  old  council  of  the 
Areopagus,  which  continued  to  hold  its  dignified  position  as 
"guardian  of  the  constitution."  But  in  place  of  the  council 
of  four  hundred  and  one  established  by  Draco,  he  created  a 
new  council  of  four  hundred  members — one  hundred  members 
being  chosen  by  lot  from  each  of  the  four  Ionian  tribes.  This 
council  prepared  the  laws,  which  might  or  might  not  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  assembly  of  the  people. 

The  reforms  of  Solon  were  guided  by  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion. Although  he  did  not  destroy  the  aristocratic  element  of 
the  state,  he  did  give  a  greater  importance  to  the  popular  ele- 
ment, and  paved  the  way  for  a  more  democratic  government. 

The  Tyranny  of  Pisistratus  (560-527  B.  c.). — It  is  said  that 
Solon  bound  the  people  by  an  oath  to  observe  his  laws  for  ten 
years,  and  then  departed  from  the  city.  But  during  his  ab- 
sence bitter  strifes  arose  among  the  various  classes  of  citizens 
who  had  different  interests.  These  were :  (1)  the  wealthy  land- 
owners, who  held  their  estates  on  the  lowlands,  and  were  called 
the  Men  of  the  Plain;  (2)  the  shepherds  and  peasants,  who 
lived  in  the  highlands,  and  were  called  the  Men  of  the  Hill ; 
and  (3)  the  merchants  and  traders  who  lived  along  the  coast, 
and  were  called  the  Men  of  the  Shore.  In  the  struggles  be- 
tween these  parties,  the  cause  of  the  common  people  was  es- 
poused by  an  able  leader,  Pisistratus,  who  seized  the  govern- 
ment in  a  manner  not  sanctioned  by  law.  To  such  a  man  the 
Greeks  gave  the  name  of  "  tyrant, "  whether  his  rule  was  good 
or  bad.  Although  twice  expelled  from  the  city  by  his  enemies, 
he  each  time  recovered  his  power,  and  ruled  in  the  interests 
of  the  people.  "His  administration,"  says  Aristotle,  "was 
more  like  a  constitutional  government  than  the  rule  of  a 
tyrant."  '  He  retained  the  political  forms  established  by  Solon, 
only  taking  care  that  his  own  supporters  should  be  elected  to 
the  archonship.  He  advanced  money  to  the  poorer  people  to 
aid  them  in  obtaining  a  livelihood.  TTo  appointed  local  judins 
in  the  country,  so  that  the  rights  of  the  lower  classes  might  be 


CITY    STATES— SPARTA    AND    ATHENS 


121 


protected  without  their  being  obliged  to  come  to  the  city  for 
justice.  He  adorned  Athens  with  public  buildings,  not  only 
to  satisfy  his  own  love  of  art,  but  to  give  work  to  the  unem- 
ployed.- He  was  a  patron  of  literature  and  collected  a  library 
whirl  i  he  threw  open  to  the  public.  He  is  said  to  have  made 
the  first  collection  of  Homer's  poems.  uEe  gathered  about 
him  the  poets  and  artists  of  Greece.  )He  also  encouraged  com- 
merce and  formed  alliances  with  foreign  states.  He  favored 
in  every  way  the  worship  of  the  gods,  and  instituted  splendid 
festivals  in  their  honor.  Although  a  tyrant  in  name,  he  was 
one  of  the  greatest  of  Athenian  rulers,  and  began  the  policy 
that  later  made  Athens  the  literary  and  art  center  of  Greece. 

At  the  death  of  Pisistra- 
tus  the  power  passed  into  the 
hands  of  his  two  sons,  Hip'- 
pias  and  Hippar'chus,1  who 
began  their  rule  by  follow- 
ing their  father's  worthy  ex- 
ample. But  when  Hippar- 
chus  was  killed  as  the  result 
of  a  private  quarrel,  his 
brother  Hippias  was  embit- 
tered, and  by  his  despotic 
rule  he  made  the  name  of 
tyrant  forever  odious  to  the 
Athenian  people.  With  the 
aid  of  the  Spartans,  who 
were  directed  by  the  Delphic 
oracle  to  help  the  Athenians, 
Hippias  was  overthrown  and 
banished  from  the  city.  The 
tyrannicides,  Harmo'dius  and  Aristogi'ton,  who  had  previously 
killed  Hipparchus,  were  hailed  as  the  deliverers  of  their  coun- 
try, and  statues  of  bronze  were  erected  in  their  honor. 

1  Called  the  Pisistrat' idae,  or  sons  of  Pisistratus. 


THE  TYRANNICIDES  (Copies) 


126  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

The  New  Constitution  of  Clisthenes  (508  B.  c.).  —  The  man 
who  now  appeared  as  the  friend  of  the  people  was  Clisthenes, 
who  had  taken  part  in  overthrowing  the  recent  tyranny.  He 
was  an  able  and  far-seeing  statesman,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
reformers  that  Greece  ever  produced.  He  reorganized  the  gov- 
ernment by  placing  it  upon  a  new  and  more  democratic  basis. 

(1)  In  the  first  place,  he  made  a  new  division  of  the  people, 
so  as  to  include  persons  who  were  not  members  of  the  four  old 
Ionian  tribes,  —  such  as  enfranchised  slaves  and  resident  for- 
eigners.    To  take  the  place  of  the  Ionian  tribes,  which  were 
based  upon  blood  relationship,  he  divided  the  whole  territory  of 
Attica  into  ten  districts,  or  "local  tribes."    Each  local  tribe 
was  made  up  of  three  smaller  districts  (called  trittyes)  —  one  of 
which  was  situated  in  or  near  the  city,  another  near  the  shore, 
and  the  third  in  the  intermediate  territory.     The  trittys  was 
simply  a  group  of  three  or  four  villages  or  townships,  which 
were  called  demes.    The  deme  was  thus  the  smallest  unit  in  the 
state  ;  and  every  person  enrolled  in  a  deme  was  a  citizen  of  the 
Athenian  state  and  entitled  to  political  rights.   This  arrange- 
ment tended  not  only  to  broaden  the  basis  of  citizenship,  but 
to  break  down  the  old  strife  between  the  Men  of  the  Plain,  the 
Hill,  and  the  Shore;  since  the  members  of  each  tribe  would  be 
inclined  to  act  together  for  their  common  interests. 

(2)  In  the  next  place,  the  government  was  changed  so  as  to 
rest  upon  this  new  arrangement  of  the  people.   For  example, 
the  assembly  (eccle'sia)  —  instead  of  being  composed  simply  of 
members  of  the  old  Ionian  tribes  —  was  now  made  up  of  all  the 
people  of  Attica  who  were  enrolled  in  the  various  demes.    So 
too,  the  councilor  senate  (boule)  —  instead  of  consisting  of  four 
hundred  members,  one  hundred  from  onc-li  of  the  four  Ionian 
irilx'S  —  was  now  made  to  consist  of  five  hundred  members,  fifiy 
of  whom  wrro  splrcird  Lv  lot  from  each  of  the  ten  new  tribes.1 


'The  old  council  of  the  Areopagus  still  remained  ns  a  time-honored  and 
perfunctory  branch  of  the  government.  It  represented  ilie  conservative 
spirit  of  Athens.  l>ut  pmct  ic.-illy  !<>st  Its  Importance  —  except  for  a  time 
during  the  progress  of  the  Persian  wars. 


CITY  STATES— SPARTA    AND   ATHENS  12? 

The  chief  magistrates  of  the  state  continued  to  be  the  nine 
archons,  who  were  chosen  by  lot,  not  now  from  the  upper 
classes,  but  from  candidates  presented  by  all  the  denies.  The 
military  organization  was  also  based  upon  the  new  tribal  divi- 
sion, ten  generals  (strate'gi)  being  elected  to  command  the  ten 
tribal  regiments,  and  forming  a  war  council  under  the  pole- 
•march,  who  was  still  the  nominal  commander  in  chief. 

(3)  Clisthenes  also  introduced  a  method  to  protect  the 
state  from  the  danger  of  tyranny,  or  the  undue  prominence  of 
a  party  leader.  If  six  thousand  votes  were  cast  against  any 
man  thought  to  be  dangerous  to  the  state,  that  man  was  obliged 
to  withdraw  from  the  city  for  ten  years.  As  these  votes  were 
written  upon  pieces  of  earthenware  (ostraca)  this  process  was 
called  ostracism.  Although  intended  as  a  safeguard  to  the 
state,  it  was  yet  capable  of  being  abused  and  used  for  partisan 
purposes. 

The  Triumph  of  Democracy. — From  this  review  we  can  see 
how  the  ancient  monarchy  of  Athens  was  gradually  trans- 
formed into  a  well-organized  democracy.  The  old  king,  who 
held  his  office  by  hereditary  right,  was  displaced  by  the  archons, 
chosen  at  first  from  the  nobles,  and  finally  from  the  whole  body 
of  the  people.  The  ancient  council  of  elders,  or  war  chiefs, 
passed  into  the  council  of  the  Areopagus,  which  consisted  of 
the  ex-archons,  and  which  was  supplemented  by  new  councils, 
— at  first,  the  council  of  four  hundred  and  one,  established 
by  Draco,  and  chosen  from  the  wealthy  classes;  afterward,  the 
council  of  four  hundred,  established  by  Solon,  and  chosen 
from  the  four  Ionian  tribes;  and,  finally,  the  council  of  five 
hundred,  established  by  Clisthenes,  and  chosen  from  the  mem- 
bers of  the  ten  new  Attic  tribes.  The  assembly  had  passed 
through  somewhat  similar  changes,  until  it  had  come  to  be 
composed  of  the  whole  body  of  citizens,  and  to  hold  the  sov- 
ereign power  of  the  state.  As  Athens  came  to  represent  the 
principle  of  democracy,  she  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Spar- 
tans, as  the  chief  defenders  of  the  aristocratic  principle. 


128  THE   GREEK    WORLD 

Under  their  king,  Cleom'enes,  they  even  invaded  Attica  and  at- 
tempted to  overthrow  the  new  Athenian  constitution ;  but  this 
effort  proved  a  failure.  With  her  democratic  institutions 
firmly  established,  Athens  continued  to  grow  in  strength  until 
she  became  the  chief  city  of  Hellas  and  the  champion  of  Greek 
liberty. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  ARISTOCRATIC  CITY  STATE,  SPARTA. — The  Dorians  and 
Sparta.— Divisions  of  the  People  in  Sparta. — The  Spartan  Govern- 
ment.— Spartan    Education    and    Discipline. — The    Conquests    of 
Sparta;  the  Peloponnesian  League. — Position  of  Sparta  irj  Greece. 

II.  THE  DEMOCRATIC  CITY  STATE,  ATHENS. — The  Ancient  Mon- 
archy of  Athens. — Divisions  of  the  People  in  Attica. — The  Growth 
of  the  Archonship;    Eupatrid  Rule. — The  Laws  of  Draco. — The 
Reforms  of  Solon. — The  Tyranny  of  Pisistratus. — The  New  Con- 
stitution of  Clisthenes. — The  Triumph  of  Democracy. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Smith,  Wm.,  Ch.  7,  "Early  History  of  the  Peloponnesus";  Ch.  10, 
"Early  History  of  Athens"  (10).1 

Bury,  Ch.  3,  "Growth  of  Sparta";  Ch.  5,  "Growth  of  Athens"  (10). 

Oman,  Ch.  7,  "The  Dorians  in  Peloponnesus";  Ch.  12,  "Solon  and 
Peisistratus";  Ch.  16,  "The  Constitution  of  Cleisthenes"  (10). 

Cox,  History,  Ch.  5.  "Constitution  and  Early  History  of  Sparta": 
Ch.  9,  "Early  Constitutional  History  of  Athens";  Ch.  12,  "Re- 
forms of  Kleisthenes"  (10). 

Cox,  Greek  Statesmen,  "Solon."  "Pisistratus,"  "Kleisthenes"  (:jr>). 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  6,  "The  Spartan  State";  Ch.  15,  "Pisisti -at us 
:md  Cleisthenes"  (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  T.,  Bk.  IT.,  Ch.  1,  "History  of  the  Peloponnesus"; 
Ch.  2,  "History  of  Attica"  (10). 

Greenidg-e,  Ch.   5,  "Mixed   Constitutions"    (11). 

Gilbert,  pp.  81-91,  "The  Lacedaemonian  League"  (11). 

Fowler,  pp.  64,  65  (war  songs  of  Tyrtaeus)   (15). 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  212,  213,  "Spartan  Women"  (10). 

IMntareli.  "Lvonrpiis,"  "Solon"    (26). 

Aristotle.  Athenian  Constitution,  Chs.  3-21  (growth  of  the  con- 
stitution) (17). 

Herodotus,  Bk.  T..  Chs.  29-33  (Solon  and  (  nrsus);  Bk.  VT..  Chs. 
126-131  (the  wooing-  of  Air.-iristr.  the  daughter  of  Clisthenes. 
tyrant  of  Sievon,  and  mother  of  Clisthenes,  the  Athenian 
statesman)  (17). 

lfThe   figure   In   parenthesis   refers   to   the  number   of  the  topic  In   the 
Appendix,  where  a   fuller  title  of  the  hook  will  l»e  found. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE  BEGINNINGS   OF   HELLENIC   CULTURE 
I.    THE  GREEK  KELIGION  AND  KELIGIOUS  INSTITUTIONS 

General  Character  of  Hellenic  Culture. — We  have  consid- 
ered in  the  two  previous  chapters  the  political  growth  of  the 
Greek  people  during  the  early  historical  period — especially  as 
seen  in  the  development  of  their  most  important  city  states. 
We  have  seen  a  growing  tendency  in  the  direction  of  free  in- 
stitutions, and  of  a  political  life  far  different  from  that  which 
marked  the  great  empires  and  despotic  governments  of  the 
East.  We  shall  now  see  that  during  the  same  period  there  was 
also  growing  up  a  new  form  of  culture,  not  only  different  from 
that  of  the  Oriental  world  but  also  different  from  that  of  the 
Mycenaean  age  in  Greece.  It  is  true  that  the  Greeks  derived 
many  of  their  ideas  from  the  East ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  they 
gave  to  these  ideas  a  new  expression,  and  added  to  them  many 
original  features.  To  this  distinctive  and  superior  type  of  cul- 
ture, developed  by  the  historic  Greeks,  we  may  apply  the  name 
"  Hellenic."  If  we  should  try  to  describe  its  general  character, 
we  might  call  it,  for  the  want  of  a  better  word,  humanistic — 
that  is,  based  upon  human  nature,  and  pervaded  by  a  human 
sympathy.  The  Greeks  believed  in  the  dignity  of  man.  They 
had  high  ideals  of  human  life — physical,  intellectual,  and 
aesthetic.  They  were  especially  distinguished  for  their  refined 
taste;  and  this  refinement  of  taste  was  opposed  to  everything 
that  was  excessive,  extravagant,  or  meretricious.  This  Hel- 
lenic spirit  and  type  of  culture  came  to  be  the  possession  of  all 
Greeks,  and  gave  to  them  a  common  national  character. 

MOKBT'S    ANCIENT   HIST. 8       129 


136  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

Religion  as  an  Element  of  Greek  Culture. — The  most  fun- 
damental element  of  the  culture  of  the  Greeks  was  no  doubt 
their  religion.  The  religious  ideas  of  the  common  people,  their 
conceptions  of  the  gods  and  the  future  life,  were  essentially  the 
same  as  those  contained  in  the  Homeric  poems  (p.  99),  and 
were  imbued  with  a  thoroughly  Greek  spirit.  The  stories 
of  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  woven  into  a  beautiful  mythol- 
ogy in  harmony  with  the  Greek  taste.  The  deities  were  inspired 
with  the  same  feelings  as  were  the  Greeks  themselves.  The 
Greek  religion  was,  in  fact,  a  reflection  of  the  Greek  charac- 
ter. The  religion  was  also  the  most  powerful  inspiration  of 
Greek  life  and  thought.  It  influenced  the  acts  of  the  warrior 
and  the  statesman,  and  furnished  the  theme  of  the  poet  and 
the  sculptor.  Another  important  feature  to  be  noticed  is  the 
fact  that  it  was  the  strongest  bond  of  union  between  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  Greek  race.  However  much  they  might 
be  embittered  by  jealousy  and  war,  the  Greeks  found  in  their 
religion  a  common  tie  of  sympathy. 

The  Delphic  Oracle. — One  of  the  most  important  centers  of 
the  religious  and  national  life  of  the  Greeks  was  tlio  or::-  -le 
of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  situated  in  Phocis  at  the  foot  of  Mt. 
Parnassus.  The  Greeks  looked  upon  Apollo  as  preeminently 
the  god  of  revelation,  the  god  of  li^ht,  of  inspiration,  and  of 
prophecy.  He  had  many  oracles,  but  no  other  so  renowned  as 
that  at  Delphi.  Here  was  his  most  illustrious  temple,  rich 
with  costly  gifts  bestowed  by  his  worshipers.  Here  his 
breath  was  supposed  to  issue  from  a  cleft  in  the  rock,  over 
which  stood  a  tripod- — the  seat  of  the  Pyth'ia,  or  priestess, 
who  uttered  bis  will.  The  inspired  words  of  the  Pvthia  wen- 
taken  down  by  the  attendant  priesK  and  delivered  to  the 
people.  The  oracle  was  consulted  by  private  persons  and  by 
the  envoys  of  cities  from  every  p;irt  of  Hellas.  Answers  \\eiv 
given  to  questions  relating  to  religion  and  politics,  to  national 
disputes,  to  wars,  and  to  colonization.  Although  these  answers 
often  had  a  double  meaning  and  were  difficult  to  interpret, 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    HELLENIC    CULTUKE        131 

still  the  Delphic  priests  were  able  by  means  of  this  sacred 
nrju-li1  to  exercise  ;i  great  and  generally  a  bi'iu'lirial  influence 
upon  the  Greek  people. 

The  Amphictyonic  League. — The  influence  of  the  Greek  re- 
ligion, as  a  bond  of  union,  .is  also  seen  in  the  associations  of 
cities  called  amphictyonies,  which  were  leagues  bound  together 
by  some  common  interest,  religious,  commercial,  or  political 
(see  p.  105).  The  most  important  of  these  in  early  times  was 
the  famous  Amphictyonic  League  organized  for  the  protection 
of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  It  was  made  up  of  twelve 
states  of  central  and  northern  Greece,  which  sent  to  Delphi  a 
number  of  delegates  forming  the  Amphictyonic  council.  Al- 
though religious  in  its  origin,  the  league  also  had  a  political  in- 
fluence in  binding  the  cities  together  under  a  kind  of  legal  code. 
The  cities  were  bound,  not  only  to  protect  the  temple  of  the 
god,  but  to  respect  one  another's  rights  in  time  of  war — not  to 
cut  off  the  running  water  which  supplied  a  city,  and  not  to 
destroy  any  Amphictyonic  town.  The  punishment  inflicted 
upon  the  Phocian  towns  of  Crissa  and  Cirrha  for  molest- 
ing the  pilgrims  to  Delphi — when  these  cities  were  razed 
to  the  ground,  in  the  so-called  first  "  Sacred  war  " — shows 
the  jealousy  with  which  the  league  guarded  the  shrine  of 
Apollo. 

The  Panhellenic  Games. — The  religious  institutions  which 
perhaps  more  than  all  others  tended  to  promote  a  national 
unity  and  a  national  type  of  culture,  were  the  great  public 
games.  These-  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  gods;  and  they 
show  how  closely  religion  was  connected  with  all  the  phases 
of  human  life, — with  art  and  literature,  and  even  with  athletic 
sports.  Chief  among  these  games  were  those  held  every  four 
years  at  Olympia  in  Elis.  The  physical  contests  consisted  in 
running,  jumping,  throwing  the  discus  or  quoit,  casting  the 
javelin,  wrestling,  boxing,  and  sometimes  in  chariot  racing. 
These  games  were  not  barbarous  sports,  but  were  subject  to 
strict  rules,  intended  to  promote  the  restraints,  of  discipline 


132 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE        133 


and  the  sense  of  honor.  The  competition  was  restricted  to 
Greeks  of  good  character,  well  trained  and  unblemished  by  any 
physical  or  moral  taint.  The  reward  of  the  victor  was  a  wreath 
of  olive  leaves,  and  high  honors  were  paid  him.  The  games 
also  furnished  a  field  for  intellectual  culture.  Here  poets 
recited  their  verses,  painters  displayed  their  pictures,  and 
men  of  science  explained  their  discoveries.  Olympia  became 
adorned  with  noble  buildings — especially  the  temple  of  Zeus. 
The  multitude  which  gathered  here  from  every  part  of  Hellas 
carried  back  to  their  homes  the  feeling  of  a  common  kinship, 
and  the  love  of  Greek  ideals. 

Other,  less  noted,  games  were  the  Pythian,  given  in  honor  of 
Apollo  near  his  shrine  at  Delphi;  the  Nemean,  in  honor  of 
Zeus  at  Nemea  in  Argolis;  and  the  Isthmian,  in  honor  of  Posei- 
don on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

Special  Religious  Festivals. — Besides  these  general  celebra- 
tions  which   belonged   to   the   whole   of 
Greece,  there  were  special  festivals  which 
were  more  local  in  their  character.   These 
were    holiday    entertainments    given 


in 

honor  of  certain  deities,  and  for  the  sake 
of  social  recreation.  They  consisted  of 
processions,  singing,  dancing,  games,  and 
other  diversions  in  which  the  people  took 
part.  There  were  a  number  of .  these 
festivals  in  Attica.  The  most  important 
of  them  were :  the  Panathense'a,  given  in 
honor  of  Athena;  the  Dionys'ia,  in  honor 
of  the  god  of  wine,  Diony'sus;  and  the  PANATHENAIC  VASE 
Eleusin'ia,  in  honor  of  the  goddess  Deme-  (°th  century  B.  c.) 
ter.  The  last-named  festival  was  of  peculiar  interest,  especially 
to  those  who  had  been  initiated  into  the  secret  rites  of  this 
worship.  It  consisted  of  a  solemn  procession  in  which  every 
one  might  take  part,  from  Athens  by  the  "  sacred  way  "  to  the 
city  of  Eleusis,  the  seat  of  the  mysterious  worship  of  the  god- 


134  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

dess.  The  secret  ceremonies  and  doctrines  attending  this  wor- 
ship were  called  the  "  Eleusinian  mysteries,"  of  which  no  one 
was  supposed  to  have  any  knowledge  except  the  initiated. 

II.     THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREEK  ART 

Character  of  Greek  Art. — The  art  of  Greece,  like  that 
of  the  Orient,  was  closely  related  to  religion.  But  Greek  art 
was  as  different  from  Oriental  art  as  the  Greek  religion  was 
different  from  the  Oriental  religion.  The  gods  of  Babylon, 
who  dwelt  among  the  stars,  could  be  approached  only  by 
lofty  temples,  towering  toward  the  sky.  The  grim  religion  of 
Egypt  produced  imposing  structures  which  were  gigantic  and 
awe-inspiring.  But  the  Greek  religion  appealed  more  strongly 
to  human  sympathy  and  revealed  a  finer  sense  of  beauty.  It 
produced  an  art  which  showed  the  marks  of  taste  and  reason, 
of  moderation,  of  symmetry,  and  proper  proportion.  Some  of 
the  early  features  of  Greek  art  were  no  doubt  derived  from 
the  East;  but  its  distinctive  character  was  due  to  the  refined 
taste  of  the  Greeks  themselves.  That  which  we  most  admire 
in  a  Greek  temple  or  a  Greek  statue  is  that  combination  of 
artistic  qualities — simplicity  of  design,  grace  of  form,  sym- 
metry of  structure,  and  sincerity  of  expression — which  we  can 
find  in  no  earlier  people. 

The  Greek  Temple. — For  the  highest  expression  of  Greek 
art  we  must  look  to  the  temple.  During  the  historical  period 
we  find  in  Greece  no  royal  palaces  like  those  in  Assyria  or 
Kirypt,  or  even  like  those  previously  built  on  Greek  soil  at 
Tiryns  and  Mycena?.  The  reverence  for  royalty  passed  away 
with  the  growth  of  political  freedom  :  ;im!  so  the  jnvliilivinrjil 
skill  and  taste  of  the  Greeks  were  devoted  almost  entirely  to 
the  service  of  the  gods.  In  every  city  the  temple  was  the 
most  beautiful  and  conspicuous  object. 

In  it-  dr-iun  tlu»  Greek  temple  was  a  simple  roof  supported 
by  columns  and  covering  a  space  inclosed  by  four  walls.  It 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    HELLENIC    CULTUKti        135 


is  supposed  that  this  design  grew  out  of  the  form  of  a  dwell- 
ing house,  made  of  wood,  with  a  front  porch.  At  first  the 
building  had  two  columns  in  front  (in  antis),  and  then  four 
columns  (prostyle);  afterward  it  had  also  four  columns  in  the 
rear  (amphip'rostyle),  and  finally  the  whole  building  was  sur- 


:• 
:i 


N  si: 


i: 
±: 


4  (Went) 

TYPES  OF  THE  GREEK  TEMPLE 

1,  In  antis ;  2,  prostyle;  3,  amphiprostyle ;  4,  peristyle  (the 
Parthenon)  ;  N,  naos ;  O,  opisthodomus ;  S,  statue 

rounded  by  a  colonnade  (peristyle).  The  inclosed  space  in  the 
largest  temples  generally  consisted  of  a  principal  part  (naos 
or  cella),  in  which  was  placed  the  statue  of  the  deity,  and  a 
rear  part  (opisthod'omus) ,  which  contained  the  treasures  of 
the  temple. 

Orders  of  Greek  Architecture. — As  the  Greeks  broke  away 
from  the  conventional  architecture  of  the  Eastern  peoples,  they 
developed  styles  of  architecture  of  their  own.  These  styles,  or 
orders,  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  forms  of  the  columns 
and  the  surmounting  capitals.  The  earliest  style  was  the  Doric, 
so  called  because  it  was  supposed  to  have  its  origin  among  the 
Dorian  people  of  the  Peloponnesus.  This  was  the  simplest  and 
most  dignified  style.  The  column  had  no  distinct  base,  and  the 
capital' consisted  simply  of  a  circular  band  surmounted  by  a 
square  slab.  This  style  was  used  mostly  during  this  early 
period,  but  it  was  always  greatly  admired  by  the  Greeks.  A 
later  style  was  the  Ionic,  in  which  the  column  was  more  slender 
and  rested  upon  a  distinct  base,  and  the  capital  was  adorned 
with  a  spiral  roll,  or  volute.  .A  third  style,  developed  still 
later,  was  called  the  Corinthian,  which  was  a  mere  modification 


136  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

of  the  Ionic — the  capital  being  somewhat  more  ornate  and  em- 
bellished with  designs  taken  from  the  leaves  of  the  acanthus 
plant.  While  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks  did  not  reach  its 
highest  development  during  this  period,  it  yet  acquired  a  dis- 


Doric  •  Ionic  Corinthian 

ORDERS  OF  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

tinctly  Hellenic  character  and  showed  the  Greek  taste  for  sim- 
pl icily  and  symmetry. 

Early  Greek  Sculpture. — The  art  of  sculpture  did  not  make 
as  rapid  progress  in  this  period  as  did  architecture.  In  fact, 
most  of  the  examples  which  are  left  to  us  are  crude  and  archaic. 
We  can  see  the  first  feeble  efforts  to  break  away  from  the  stiff 
and  conventional  forms  of  the  East,  and  to  give  to  stone  the 
features  of  life.  The  influence  of  religion  is  seen  in  the  early 
attempts  to  repieaenl  lli<-  u-n.Is  in  the  form  of  men;  hut  these1 
attempt-  ;m>  sii^'stivt*  of  idols  rather  than  statues.  The  credit 


THE    BEGINNINGS     OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE        137 


of  giving  to  statues  a  more  lifelike  appearance  is  ascribed  to 
the  mythical  DaBd'alus,  who  was  said  to  be  a  native  of  Athens. 
Schools  of  sculpture  grew  up  in  the  cities  of  Samos  and  Chios 
in  Asiatic  Greece;  at  Argos,  ^Egina,  and  Athens,  in  European 
Greece;  and  especially  at  Seli'nus,  in  Sicily.  We  have 
preserved  to  us  some  of 
the  sculptured  reliefs  from 
the  temple  at  Selinus. 
These  consist  of  small 
groups  of  figures  represent- 
ing mythological  scenes,  and 
are  carved  in  a  very  rude 
fashion.  But  they  are  in- 
teresting, as  they  show  the 
early  way  in  which  sculpture 
was  used  for  temple  decora- 
tion. Among  the  strongest 
influences  which  led  to  the 
improvement  of  sculpture 
during  this  time  were  the  encouragement  given  to  physical 
training  and  the  custom  of  erecting  at  Olympia  statues  to  suc- 
cessful athletes.  But  it  is  not  until  the  close  of  this  period 
that  we  see  the  sculpture  beginning  to  acquire  some  of  those 
artistic  qualities  which  we  have  noticed  in  the  architecture. 

III.     THE  GREEK  LANGUAGE  AND  EARLY  LITERATURE 

The  Greek  Language. — Another  strong  bond  which  united 
the  various  branches  of  the  Greek  people  was  their  language. 
This  gave  them  a  common  means  of  communication,  and  pre- 
served among  them  the  feeling  of  kinship.  It  also  separated 
them  from  the  outside  "  barbarian  "  world,  and  contributed  to 
the  growth  of  a  distinct  Hellenic  culture.  Although  a  branch 
of  the  great  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family,  tbe  Greek  early 
surpassed  the  other  languages  of  this  group  as  an  instrument 


RELIEF  FROM  TEMPLE  OF  SELINUS 
(Perseus  slaying  Medusa,  see  p.  85) 


138  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

of  thought  and  expression.  By  means  of  this  remarkable  lan- 
guage the  Greeks  produced  a  literature  which  has  given  them 
a  high  place  among  the  most  civilized  peoples  of  the  world. 
We  can  here  take  only  a  hasty  glance  at  the  growth  of  the  lit- 
erature during  this  formative  period. 

Decline  of  Epic  Poetry. — At  the  beginning  of  the  period 
the  Greeks  already  possessed  the  "  poems  of  Homer."  These 
poems  pictured  in  matchless  verse  the  glories  of  the  past,  and 
recounted  the  deeds  of  gods  and  heroes.  The  epic  was  thus  the 
poetry  of  action,  and  as  such  the  Homeric  epic  could  not  be 
equaled.  It  was  feebly  imitated  by  a  class  of  poets  called  the 
Homer'idaB,  who  still  sang  of  the  legends  of  Troy  and  of  myth- 
ical heroes.  A  new  and  lower  kind  of  epic  was  introduced  by 
Hesiod,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Bceotia.  This  kind 
of  epic  was  didactic  in  its  character;  that  is,  written  for  pur- 
poses of  instruction.  The  "  Theogony  "  of  Hesiod  is  a  sort  of 
theological  treatise  containing  a  description  of  the  gods  and  the 
religious  faith  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  The  "  Works  and  Days  " 
is  a  poem  of  common  life,  describing  the  labors  of  the  farmer 
and  interspersed  with  wholesome  moral  advice. 

Transition  to  Lyric  Poetry. — With  the  decline  of  the  epic, 
or  the  poetry  of  action,  there  arose  a  new  kind  of  poetry  more 
closely  related  to  human  thoughts  and  feelings.  This  is  shown 
in  what  are  called  the  elegiac,  the  iambic,  and  finally  the  lyric 
verse.  The  elegiac  and  the  iambic  poetry,  like  the  older  epic, 
made  their  first  appearance  among  the  lonians.  The  elegy  was 
serious  in  its  character,  sometimes  used  to  express  feelings  of 
sadness,  and  sometimes  patriotic  in  its  appeals.  The  chief  ele- 
giac poets  were  Calli'nus  of  Ephesus,  and  Tyrte'us  of  Athens. 
It  is  said  that  Tyrtaeus  was  sent  to  Sparta  during  the  Messe- 
nian  wars  to  inspire  the  Spartan  soldiers  with  an  heroic  spirit. 
The  iambic  poetry,  differing  from  the  ele<jv,  was  the  poetry  of 
wit  and  sntire.  ;m<l  devoted  to  rsiillery  and  invecfive.  Us  chief 
representative  \v;is  VrchiTochus,  M  unlive  <>r  fh<>  ishmd  of 
Faros.  These  two  forms  of  poetry — the  elegiac  and  the  iambic 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE        139 


GKEEK  LYKES 


—prepared  the  way  for  the  higher  and  more  cultivated  form 
of  the  lyric. 

The  JEolian  Lyric  Poetry. — The  first  form  of  lyric  poetry 
appeared  on  the  ^Eolian  island  of  Lesbos  in  Asia  Minor.  It 
consisted  of  songs  intended  to  be  sung  by  a  single  voice  accom- 
panied by  the  lyre.  The 
chief  poets  of  yEolia  were 
Alcre'us,  who  sang  of  patriot- 
ism and  war;  Sappho,  who 
sang  of  love ;  and  Ana'creon, 
who  sang  of  the  pleasures  of 
life.  Of  these  Sappho  is 
preeminent.  To  the  Greeks 
she  was  "  the  poetess/'  as  Homer  was  "  the  poet."  Of  the  few 
fragments  of  her  work  which  remain  to  us,  modern  critics 
can  hardly  express  their  admiration.  Says  one,  "  Of  all  the 
illustrious  artists  of  all  literature,  Sappho  is  the  one  whose 
every  word  has  a  peculiar  and  unmistakable  perfume,  a  seal  of 
absolute  perfection  and  inimitable  grace"  (Symonds). 

The  Dorian  Lyric  Poetry. — Another  form  of  lyric  poetry  was 
cultivated  by  the  Dorians.  It  comprised  hymns,  or  choruses, 
to  be  sung  by  a  number  of  voices  at  the  public  worship  of  the 
gods,  or  at  public  festivals.  The  chorus,  accompanied  by 
dances  or  processional  marches,  was  not  a  new  thing  in  Greece. 
But  it  was  reduced  to  a  more  regular  form  under  the  influence 
of  three  poets — Alcman,  Stesich'orus,  and  Ari'on. 

Alcman  regulated  the  rhythmic  movement  of  the  persons 
singing  the  chorus.  The  movement  of  the  singers  from  right 
to  left  before  the  altar,  and  the  part  of  the  hymn,  or  ode,  sung 
during  this  movement,  were  called  the  "  strophe  ";  the  move- 
ment from  left  to  right,  and  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
hymn,  were  called  the  "  antis'trophe." 

Stesichorus  added  an  after-part,  sung  after  these  movements 
were  completed,  by  the  chorus  when  standing  still,  and  called 
the  "  ep'ode." 


140  THE    GKEEK    WORLD 

Arion  is  said  to  have  given  a  special  form  to  the  chorus  in 
the  worship  of  Dionysus,  the  wine  god.  The  chorus  of  fifty 
singers  was  arranged  about  the  altar  in  the  form  of  a  circle, 
and  the  hymns  were  accompanied  with  dancing,  gestures, 
and  mimetic  features.  This  choral  hymn  was  known  as  the 
"  dith'yramb,"  and  from  it  sprang  the  later  drama. 

IV.    EARLY  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY 

The  Early  Ionic  School. — While  the  poets  were  singing  the 
praises  of  the  gods,  there  arose  a  class  of  thinkers  who  were  not 
inclined  to  accept  the  old  mythological  stories.  These  men  first 
appeared  at  Miletus,  an  Ionian  city  in  Asia  Minor.  Here  they 
came  into  contact  with  the  scientific  notions  of  the  East ;  and 
these  ideas  furnished  a  kind  of  starting  point  for  Greek  philos- 
ophy. The  Egyptians  and  the  Assyrians  had  made  consider- 
able progress  in  mathematics  and  astronomy;  and  their  scien- 
tific ideas  had  been  taken  up  by  the  Phoenicians  and  the  people 
of  Asia  Minor. 

The  first  of  the  Greek  philosophers  was  Tha'les,  who  was 
born  at  Miletus  and  was  of  Phoenician  descent.  He  was  first 
of  all  a  mathematician  and  astronomer.  He  is  said  to  have 
measured  the  height  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  by  their  shad- 
ows and  to  have  predicted  an  eclipse.  As  he  studied  the  uni- 
verse he  was  led  to  believe  that  everything  has  been  evolved 
from  one  substance,  and  that  that  substance  was  water,  or 
some  form  of  moisture. 

Other  philosophers  of  Miletus  were  Anaxim'ines  and  Anaxi- 
man'der — the  former  believing  that  the  primitive  substance 
was  air,  and  the  latter  that  it  was  some  kind  of  unknown  mat- 
ter without  definite  qualities.  Another  philosopher  appeared  a 
little  later  in  the  Ionian  city  of  Eph'esus :  this  was  Heracli'tus, 
who  believed  that  the  original  substance  \vas  ///•/•,  and  that 
everything  is  in  a  state  of  perpetual  movement,  or,  as  he  said, 
«  all  things  flow." 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE        141 

The  Philosophy  of  Pythagoras. — Another  school  of  philoso- 
phy was  founded  by  Pythag'oras,  who  was  a  native  of  Samos,  an 
Ionian  city  of  Asia  Minor.  He  is  said  to  have  traveled  in 
Egypt,  and  perhaps  in  Phoenicia  and  in  Babylon,  and  to  have 
absorbed  the  wisdom  of  these  countries.  At  any  rate,  he  was 
called  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time.  He  finally  settled 
at  Croton  in  southern  Italy,  and  his  philosophy  exercised  a 
great  influence  in  Magna  Gnecia.  Pythagoras  was  first  of  all 
a  mathematician;  and  he  looked  at  everything  through  mathe- 
matical eyes.  He  saw  that  everything  possesses  number,  either 
one  or  many;  and  hence  he  reasoned  that  number  is  the  prin- 
ciple of  everything.  He  was  also  a  religious  and  moral 
teacher,  and  he  organized  a  secret  fraternity,  the  purpose  of 
which  was  to  cultivate  the  highest  virtue  among  its  members. 

The  Eleatic  Philosophy. — Still  another  school  of  philosophy 
arose  in  E'lea  (Ve'lia),  on  the  western  coast  of  Italy,  called 
the  Eleat'ic  school.  This  was  also  connected,  like  the  others, 
with  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor;  since  its  founder,  whose  name 
was  Xenoph'anes,  originally  came  from  that  part  of  Hellas. 
This  philosopher  embodied  his  ideas  in  a  poem  "  On  Na- 
ture." As  he  looked  at  the  world,  he  saw  that  all  things 
are  parts  of  one  complete  and  harmonious  whole;  and  hence  to 
express  his  idea  in  a  brief  form  he  used' this  phrase,  "  The  All 
is  One."  He  also  affirmed  that  the  one  universal  principle 
which  comprehends  and  controls  everything  else,  is  God.  The 
greatest  philosopher  of  this  school  was  Parmen'ides.  He  dis- 
tinguished between  the  world  of  sense,  which  is  only  appear- 
ance, and  the  world  of  reason,  which  is  reality.  If  by  the  aid 
of  the  reason  we  look  below  the  surface  of  things,  we  shall  find, 
he  says,  an  ultimate  principle  which  does  not  change — an  abso- 
lute Being,  ever  the  same,  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever. 

Such  ideas  were  opposed  to  the  old  mythological  notions  con- 
tained in  Homer  and  Hesiod,  and  show  that  the  philosophy  of 
the  Greeks  was  tending  to  elevate  and  purify  the  old  religious 
ideas. 


142  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

We  can  thus  see  in  the  Greek  religion,  art,  literature,  and 
philosophy  the  evidences  of  the  growing  refinement,  versatility, 
and  power  of  the  Greek  mind,  which  was  gradually  expressing 
itself  in  a  distinctive  Hellenic  culture,  different  from  that  of 
any  other  ancient  people.  The  growth  of  such  a  common  cul- 
ture shows  that  the  Greeks,  although  broken  up  into  many 
small  city  states,  were  yet  bound  together  in  thought  and  feel- 
ing as  one  great  nation,'  which  extended  from  the  coasts  of 
Asia  Minor  to  the  shores  of  Sicily. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  THE  GREEK  RELIGION  AND  RELIGIOUS  INSTITUTIONS. — General 
Character  of  Hellenic  Culture. — Religion  as  an  Element  of  Greek 
Culture. — The  Delphic  Oracle. — The  Amphictyonic  League. — The 
Panhellenic  Games. — Special  Religious  Festivals. 

II.  THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    GREEK    ART. — Character    of    Greek 
Art. — The  Greek  Temple. — Orders  of  Greek  Architecture. — Early 
Greek  Sculpture.    • 

III.  THE    GREEK    LANGUAGE    AND    EARLY    LITERATURE. — The 
Greek  Language. — Define  of  Epic  Poetry. — Transition  to  Lyric 
Poetry. — vEolian  Lyric  Poetry. — Dorian  Lyric  Poetry. 

IV.  EARLY  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY. — The  Early  Ionic  School. — The 
Philosophy   of   Pythagoras.— The   Eleatic   Philosophy. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Cox,  History,  Ch.  7,  "Intellectual  Education  of  the  Greeks"  (10). « 

Smith,  Wm.,  Ch.  13,  "History  of  Literature";  Ch.  14,  "History  of 
Art"  (10). 

Mahaify,  Survey,  Ch.  3,  "First  Two  Centuries  of  Historic  Develop- 
ment" (10). 

Ciirtius,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  4,  "The  Unity  of  Greece"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  24,  "Growth  of  Greek  Philosophy,  Literature 
and  Art  in  Asia  Minor"  (10). 

Symonds,  Greek  Poets,  Ch.  5,  "The  Lyric  Poets"  (15). 

Zeller,  First    Period.   Part  I.,  "The  Three  Earliest  Schools"  (1.1). 

Tarbell,  Ch.  2,  "Prehistoric  Art  in  Greece";  Ch.  3,  "Greek  Archi- 
tecture" (1^). 

CnllitriiMii.  I'.k.  I..  "Origin  of  Greek  Art"  (12). 

Grote,  l';irl  II..  Ch.  28,  "Pan  Hellenic  Festivals"  (0ft  fXUMNtf,  the 
first  Sacred  war)  (  10). 

Harper's  Dictionary.  "Oracula"  (Greek  oracles):  "KYIiL'm"  (the 
religion  «,f  Homer  and  of  later  times):  "  Klensi  nia"  (  Klcusis 
and  its  mysteries);  "Delphi"  (;m<l  its  priesthood)  (11). 

'The  fljjurp  In  pan-iiMi.  sis  n-lVrs  ID  th<>  nnmbor  of  tho  topic  In  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of -the  book  will  he  found. 


FER10D  III,    THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY;  ITS  GKOWTH 
AND  DECLINE  (500-359  B,  0.) 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE  PERSIAN  WARS— GROWING  POWER  OF  ATHENS 

I.     THE  FIRST  PERSIAN  INVASION,  UNDER  DARIUS 

Greece  and  Persia. — We  have  thus  far  traced  the  beginnings 
of  the  Greek  political  system,  and  the  first  steps  in  the  growtli 
of  a  common  Hellenic  culture.  We  have  seen  how  the  Greeks 
broke  away. from  the  old  monarchical  ideas  of  the  East,  and 
laid  the  basis  of  freer  and  more  democratic  institutions.  We 
have  also  seen  how  they  began  to  develop  a  higher  intellectual 
life  and  a  finer  esthetic  taste  than  had  hitherto  existed  among 
the  peoples  of  the  Orient.  With  the  extension  of  the  colonies, 
the  influence  of  this  new  civilization  was  beginning  to  be  felt 
on  nearly  every  shore  of  the  Mediterranean — in  Asia  Minor, 
in  Thrace,  in  southern  Italy  and  Sicily.  But  now  came  a  great 
crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  people,  when  they  were  called 
upon  to  defend  their  very  existence.  Their  cities,  their  colonies, 
their  commerce,  their  free  institutions,  and  their  new  culture 
were  all  threatened  with  destruction  by  the  encroachments  of 
Persia.  This  great  world  empire,  having  absorbed  all  the  mon- 
archies of  the  East,  was  now  brought  into  contact  with  the  city 
states  of  Greece.  Persia  had  extended  her  power  to  the  shores 
of  the  ^Egean.  Her  armies  had  already  crossed  the  Hellespont 
into  Europe,  and  held  lands  extending  to  the  very  borders  of 

143 


144 


THE   GREEK   WORLD 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


Thessaly.1  We  are  now  about  to  witness  a  conflict  which  is 
perhaps  to  decide  the  fate  of  the  world ;  it  will  certainly  decide 
the  question  whether  Greek  civilization  is  to  survive,  or 
whether  Europe  is  to  become  a  province  of  the  Orient. 

The  Asiatic  Cities  and  the  Ionian  Revolt. — This  great 
struggle  between  the  East,  represented  by  Persia,  and  the  West, 
represented  by  Greece,  began  with  the  revolt  of  the  Greek 
cities  in  Asia  Minor.  We  remember  that  these  cities  grew  up  as 

the  result  of  the  early 
migrations  of  the  Greeks 
across  the  ^Egean  Sea. 
The  most  important  of 
these  cities  were  in  Ionia ; 
and  the  most  influential 
of  the  Ionian  cities  was 
Miletus.  These  cities 
maintained  their  inde- 
pendence for  a  long  time. 
But  when  the  new  empire 
of  Lydia  arose  in  Asia 
Minor,  they  passed  under 
the  control  of  the  Lydian 
kings,  the  most  noted  of 
whom  was  Croesus  (560- 
546  B.  c.).  Under  the 
Lydian  rule,  the  Greeks 
were  well  treated  and 


»DE\<!=x! 
~'S*J 


SEAT  OF  THE  IONIAN  REVOLT 


their  rights  respected.  A  great  change,  however,  occurred 
when  Lydia  was  conquered  by  Persia,  and  the  Asiatic  Greeks 
became  subject  to  the  Persian  empire.  They  were  now  ruled 
by  tyrants  under  the  control  of  the  Persian  satrap  whose  capi- 
tal was  at  Sardis.  The  revolt  against  Persia  began  at  the  city 
of  MilHus  (500  B.  c.);  it  soon  spread  to  the  other  cities  of 


i  For  the  Persian  conquest  of  Lydln,  the  Scythian  expedition  of  Darius. 
and  his  encroachment  upon  Europe,  see  pp.  64,  65. 


THE    PERSIAN    WARS  145 

Asia  Minor,,  and  also  to  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast  of 
Thrace. 

In  their  extremity  the  cities  appealed  to  European  Greece 
for  assistance.  Sparta  refused  to  give  any  help.  But  Athens 
voted  to  send  a  fleet  of  twenty  ships  to  aid  tlu'ir  "  kin  beyond 
the  sea."  To  this  was  added  a  small  squadron  of  five  ships 
sent  by  Eretria,  a  city  friendly  to  Miletus.  With  this  aid 
the  lonians  captured  and  burned  the  Persian  capital  Sardis. 
On  their  retreat  from  the  city  the  Athenians  suffered  a  severe 
defeat;  and  disheartened  they  returned  to  Greece.  The  Asiatic 
cities  continued  their  resistance ;  but  on  account  of  their  rela- 
tive weakness,  and  especially  their  lack  of  union,  they  could 
not  cope  with  the  forces  of  Persia.  The  Persians  gained  a 
decisive  naval  battle  off  the  little  island  of  La'de,  near  Miletus. 
Miletus  was  then  captured  and  burned;  and  the  remaining 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  soon  reduced  to  submission  (49:> 
B.  c.).  This  revolt  furnished  an  example  of  the  lack  of 
strength  that  results  from  a  too  great  love  of  liberty  and  the 
failure  to  unite  in  a  common  cause. 

Plans  of  Darius  against  Greece. — Whether  or  not  the  Per- 
sian king,  Darius,  had  up  to  this  time  thought  of  conquering 
Greece,  he  was  now  determined  at  least  to  punish  the  cities  of 
Athens  and  Eretria  for  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  Asia.  For 
this  purpose  he  organized  an  expedition  (492  B.  c.),  consisting 
of  land  and  naval  forces,  and  placed  it  under  the  command  of 
his  son-in-law  Mardo'nius.  This  expedition  was  to  invade 
Greece  by  way  of  the  Hellespont  and  the  coasts  of  Thrace  and 
Macedonia.  But  this  first  attempt  to  invade  Greece  was  a  com- 
plete failure;  for  the  fleet  of  Mardonius  was  wrecked  off  the 
rocky  point  of  Mt.  Athos  (see  map,  p.  152) .  This  failure,  how- 
ever, did  not  discourage  the  Persian  king.  He  now  determined 
not  simply  to  punish  Athens  and  Eretria,  but  to  subdue  all  the 
cities  of  Greece  which  would  not  recognize  his  authority.  To 
test  their  loyalty,  he  sent  his  heralds  among  them,  demanding 
"  earth  and  water  "  as  a  token  of  their  submission.  Most  of 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 9 


146 


THE   GREEK   WORLD 


the  island  states,  fearing  attacks  from  the  Persian  fleet,  yielded 
— including  ^Egina,  off  the  coast  of  Attica.  Many  of  the  cities 
of  the  peninsula  hesitated;  but  Athens  and  Sparta  stood  firm, 
and  even  treated  the  royal  heralds  with  indignity.  The  stand 
taken  by  these  leading  states  was  a  good  omen;  for  it  showed 
that  Greece  might  yet  be  united  in  the  face  of  a  common 
danger. 

Persian  Invasion  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes. — The  new 
expedition  of  Darius  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  Median  gen- 
eral, Datis,  and  the  king's  nephew  Artapher'nes.  Instead  of 
following  the  previous  course  of  Mardonius  and  risking  another 
disaster  at  Mt.  Athos,  the  new  generals  proceeded  directly 
across  the  sea.  Their  fleet  consisted,  it  is  said,  of  six  hundred 
triremes.  On  their  way  they  captured  Naxos  and  reduced  its 

inhabitants  to  slavery.  But 
they  spared  Delos,  the  seat  of 
the  shrine  of  Apollo.  They  soon 
landed  on  the  island  of  Eubcea, 
and  attacked  the  city  of  Ere- 
tria.  After  a  gallant  defense, 
the  city  fell  by  the  treachery  of 
two  of  its  citizens.  It  was 
burned  and  its  people  were  en- 
slaved.  The  Persians  now 
crossed  over  to  Attica  to  mete 
out  a  similar  punishment  to 
Athens.  By  the  advice  of  Hip- 
pi  as,  the  banished  Athenian 
I y rant  (p.  125)  now  in  the 
enemy's  service,  the  Persians 
MILTIADES  (So-called)  Innded  on  the  shore  of  Attica 

near  the  plain  of  Mar'athon. 

Miltiades  and  the  Battle  of  Marathon  (•!!»<)  n.  o.).— Upon 
Athens  now  rested  the  chief  duty  of  defending  Greece.  Sho 
collected  an  army  and  sent  it  to  meet  the  invaders.  It  was 


THE    PERSIAN    WARS 


147 


BAY    OF 


MARATHON 


led  by  the  ten  strategi,  or  generals,  who  usually  comma  in  I  IM! 
the  army  each  in  his  own  turn.  One  of  the  generals  was  Mil- 
ti'ades.  To  him  it  seemed  necessary  to  attack  the  Persians  on 
the  plain  of  Marathon.  The  other  generals  were  divided  in 
their  opinions,  but  finally  decided  to  yield  to  the  advice  of 
Miltiades  and  to  give  to  him  the  chief  command.  A  swift 
runner  was  dispatched  to  Sparta  with  a  request  to  that  city 
for  aid.  This  aid  was 
promised;  but  it  was 
delayed  on  account  of 
a  Spartan  superstition 
that  an  army  should  not 
be  sent  away  before  the 
time  of  the  full  moon. 
The  only  assistance 
which  the  Athenians  re- 
ceived was  from  the 
friendly  city  of  Plafeea, 
which  sent  its  entire  B^TTLE  OF  MARATHON,  490  B.  c. 
army,  a  thousand  fighting  men,  raising  the  total  force  to  ten 
or  eleven  thousand.  The  Greeks  were  drawn  up  in  front  of  the 
town  of  Marathon.  Opposite  them  the  Persians  were  stationed 
nearer  the  sea  and  supported  by  their  fleet.  The  battle  line  of 
the  Greeks  was  equal  in  length  to  that  of  the  Persians ;  but  the 
center  was  made  weak  in  order  to  strengthen  the  wings.  At 
a  given  signal,  the  Greeks,  heedless  of  superior  numbers  and 
the  terrible  shower  of  arrows,  rushed  upon  the  enemy.  The 
battle  was  long  and  obstinate.  The  Persians  drove  back  the 
weak  center  of  the  Athenians  and  pressed  forward  in  the 
intervening  space.  But  the  strong  wings  of  the  Greek  army 
closed  upon  the  enemy  and  routed  them  with  great  slaughter. 
The  Persians  were  pursued  to  their  ships,  and  with  great  diffi- 
culty embarked  and  sought  refuge  upon  the  open  sea.  Not 
entirely  discouraged,  the  Persians  sailed  directly  to  Athens, 
hoping  to  find  the  city  unguarded.  But  Miltiades  made  a 


148  THE    GREEK    WOKLD 

forced  march  to  Athens;  and  the  Persians,  when  they  arrived, 
found  the  city  protected  by  the  victorious  army  of  Miltiades. 
Foiled  at  every  point,  Datis  and  Artapherncs  sailed  with  their 
defeated  forces  back  to  Asia.  When  the  full  moon  was  passed, 
the  Spartan  army  arrived  to  find  that  Marathon  had  been 
won. 

The  Athenians  were  entitled  to  look  upon  Marathon  as  their 
own  battlefield.  The  Spartans  paid  the  highest  tribute  to 
tlu-ir  valor.  The  poets  of  Greece  vied  with  one  another  in  sing- 
ing the  praises  of  the  dead  heroes.  A  monumental  mound  was 
thrown  up  in  their  honor,  which  remains  to  the  present  day. 
Two  statues  were  erected  to  Miltiades,  one  at  Athens  and  the 
other  at  Delphi.  While  the  battle  of  Marathon  did  not  end 
the  struggle  between  the  East  and  the  West,  it  marked  an  im- 
portant step  toward  the  ascendency  of  Athens  in  Greece,  and 
of  Greece  in  the  civilization  of  the  world. 

II.  ATHENS  DURING  THE  TEN  YEARS'  RESPITE  (490-480  B.  c.) 

Democratic  Progress  at  Athens. — After  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon there  was  an  interval  of  ten  years  before  the  next  Persian 
invasion.  During  this  time  Athens  was  striving  to  maintain 
her  democratic  institutions,  and  to  strengthen  her  power  for 
the  next  attack.  As  Miltiades  was  looked  upon  as  a  friend  of 
the  oligarchical  party,  he  was  called  upon  to  answer  a  charge 
of  deceiving  the  people.  He  had  induced  them  to  fit  out  for 
him  a  naval  expedition,  which  had  failed.  This  furnished  to 
the  popular  party  a  pretext  for  condemning  him;  this  was 
done,  and  the  hero  of  Marathon  died  in  disgrace.  The  people 
also  drove  into  exile  all  the  friends  of  Hippias.  the  banished 
tyrant  who  had  aided  the  Persians  in  the  recent  invasion.  The 
popular  party  overcame  all  opposition,  until  they  held  com- 
pletely the  reins  of  government.  All  political  <|iiestioiis  \\ere 
now  reduced  to  the  one  problem,  how  best  to  maintain  and 
- 1  rengthen  the  Athenian  democracy. 


THE    PERSIAN    WARS 


149 


Aristides  and  Themistocles. — But  even  in  the  popular  party 
there  were  different  views  as  to  the  best  way  of  developing  the 
power  of  Athens.  The  conservative  view  was  held  by  Aristi'- 
des;  the  progressive  view  by  Themis'tocles.  Aristides  was 
highly  esteemed  by  the  people,  so  that  they  called  him  "  the 
Just."  He  had  supported  the  democratic  reforms  of  Olisthrnos. 
and  had  commanded  the  Greek 
ecu  tor  at  Marathon.  He  be- 
lieved that  the  strength  of  Ath- 
ens depended  upon  preserving 
the  institutions  and  maintain- 
ing the  policy  that  had  already 
made  her  great,  and  that  no 
change  would  improve  her  con- 
dition. Themistocles,  on  the 
other  hand,  believed  that  the 
state  should  not  rest  entirely 
upon  the  past,  but  should  pre- 
pare itself  for  the  future.  •  The 
success  which  Athens  had  al- 
ready attained  should  not  blind 

her  eyes  to  the  need  of  new 

.  .    *  THEMISTOCLES  (So-called) 

achievements.  These  two  states- 
men, though  differing  widely  in  their  character  and  views, 
were  equally  conscientious  and  devoted  to  the  interests  of  their 
country. 

The  Naval  Programme  of  Themistocles. — Themistocles  no 
doubt  saw  more  clearly  than  Aristides  the  need  of  preparing  for 
a  new  struggle  with  Persia.  He  also  saw  that  in  the  coming 
conflict  Athens,  the  chief  object  of  Persia's  hatred,  must 
again  bear  the  brunt  of  Persia's  attack.  Persia  was  both 
a  great  military  and  a  great  naval  power.  Tn  any  future 
conflict,  if  Sparta  was  to  be  recognized  as  the  chief  military 
power  of  Greece,  Athens  should  be  recognized  as  its  chief 
maritime  power.  There  was  'also  another  consideration  in 


150  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

i'avor  of  the  policy  of  Themistocles.  Athens  was  now  em- 
broiled in  a  war  with  .Kgina,  the  neighboring  island  state 
which  had  shown  a  sympathy  with  Persia.  ^Egina  had  already 
a  strong  fleet.  The  only  hope  of  winning  in  this  war  was  by 
meeting  ships  with  ships.  With  arguments  such  as  these  The- 
mistocles enforced  upon  the  people  the  need  of  a  strong  navy. 
That  the  new  naval  project  might  be  carried  through  without 
hindrance,  Aristides  was  ostracized ;  and  Themistocles  became 
the  leader  at  Athens  without  a  rival. 

Athens  Becomes  a  Maritime  Power. — Through  the  building 
of  a  strong  fleet  and  the  construction  of  an  adequate  harbor, 
Athens  soon  became  the  greatest  naval  power  in  Greece.  The 
fleet  was  built  with  the  aid  of  the  silver  mines  recently  opened 
at  Laurium  in  the  south  of  Attica.  It  was  at  first  proposed 
that  the  product  of  these  mines,  which  belonged  to  the  state, 
should  be  divided  among  the  citizens.  But  Themistocles  ap- 
pealed to  the  patriotism  of  the  people  and  induced  them  to  de- 
vote the  proceeds  of  the  mines  to  the  building  of  war  ships.  In 
a  short  time  Athens  possessed  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  triremes, 
far  outnumbering  that  of  ^Egina  or  of  any  other  Greek  city. 
About  this  time — perhaps  earlier — Themistocles  also  trans- 
ferred the  harbor  of  Athens  from  the  bay  of  Phale'rum,  which 
was  exposed  alike  to  storms  and  to  enemies,  to  the  Pirae'us, 
which  was  far  better  adapted  for  a  naval  station.  This  new 
port  was  surrounded  by  natural  defenses,  but  was  now  further 
strengthened  by  fortifications.  On  account  of  these  works 
Themistocles  may  properly  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
maritime  greatness  of  Athens. 

The  Congress  of  Corinth  (481  B.  c.). — But  Themistocles  saw 
that  Athens  alone,  even  with  her  new  navy,  could  not  with- 
stand the  power  of  Persia.  He  saw  that  the  safety  of  Greece 
depended  upon  the  union  of  her  states.  At  his  suggestion  a 
congress  was  called  at  Corintli  to  consider  the  means  of  a 
common  defense.  The  principal  continental  states  responded 
favorably  to  this  call — except  Argos  and  Tin-bus,  who  were 


THE   PERSIAN    WAKS  151 

jealous,  the  former  of  Sparta  and  the  latter  of  Athens.  The 
Greeks  in  their  conference  at  Corinth  agreed  to  lay  aside  all 
internal  strife,  and  act  together  against  the  common  foe.  It 
was  decided  to  punish  any  city  that  should  "  Medize  " — that 
is,  aid  the  cause  of  Persia.  It  was  also  decided  that  of  the 
three  possible  lines  of  defense — namely,  the  vale  of  Tcmpe,  the 
pass  of  Ther.mop'ylae,  and  the  isthmus  of  Corinth — the  best 
place  to  meet  the  invader  was  at  the  pass  of  Thermopylae.  The 
leadership  of  the  new  confederation  of  Greek  states  was  given 
to  Sparta,  which  was  already  the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian 
League.  At  no  other  period  did  Greece  ever  come  so  near  to 
being  one  nation  as  it  did  at  this  time  under  the  influence  of 
the  great  Athenian  statesman  Themistocles.  It  was  by  his 
foresight  and  genius  that  not  only  Athens,  but  Greece  as  well, 
was  made  ready  for  the  next  great  war  with  Persia. 

* 
III.     THE  SECOND  PERSIAN  INVASION,  UNDER  XERXES 

Preparations  and  Advance  of  Xerxes. — While  the  Greeks 
were  thus  preparing  to  defend  themselves  against  Persia,  the 
Persians  were  making  the  most  formidable  preparations  for 
their  next  invasion.  These  preparations  had  been  begun  by 
Darius,  but  were  interrupted  by  a  revolt  in  Egypt  and  were 
finally  cut  short  by  the  death  of  the  king  himself.  Darius  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes,  a  man  of  far  greater  pretensions 
and  of  far  less  ability  than  his  father.  Prompted  to  take  up 
the  task  left  unfinished  by  Darius,  he  called  together  his  nobles 
and  announced  his  purpose.  "  As  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  and 
Darius,"  he  said,  "have  each  enlarged  the  empire,  I  wish  to 
do  the  same.  I  propose  to  bridge  the  Hellespont  and  march 
through  Europe,  and  fire  Athens  for  burning  Sardis  and  op- 
posing Datis  and  Artaphernes.  By  reducing  Attica  and  Greece, 
the  sky  will  be  the  only  boundary  of  Persia "  (Herodotus, 
VII.,  8).  Four  years  he  spent  in  preparing  for  his  great  expe- 
dition. Infantry,  cavalry,  horse  transports,  provisions,  long 


152 


THE    (JKEEK    WORLD 


ships  for  bridges,  and  war  ships  for  battles  were  collected  from 
various  Asiatic  nations.  Three  years  were  spent  in  cutting  a 
channel  through  the  isthmus  of  Athos,  to  avoid  the  promon- 
tory near  which  the  fleet  of  Mardonius  had  been  wrecked. 

After  collecting  his  forces  at  Sardis,  Xerxes  marched  to  the 
Hellespont.     Crossing  into  Thrace,  the  army  was  reenforced 


l^f 

W 4l;v,£S%-<.^\  4<>  >%^ 

fei: 


SO  100  loO 


ROUTES  OF  PERSIAN  INVASIONS 

by  the  fleet,  which  had  followed  by  way  of  the  coast.  Hero  the 
great  king  reviewed  his  immense  armament,'  gathered,  it  is 
said,  from  forty-six  different  nations.  I  Inv  were  Persians  clad 
in  corselets  and  armed  with  <_rn-;il  l><>\vs  ,-uxl  slmrl  javelins. 
Here  were  Ethiopians  covered  with  the  skins  of  beasts  and 
having  arrows  tipped  with  sharp  stones.  II en-  \\cro  the  sav- 
ages from  central  Asia,  and  ili<-  inon-  civil i/.nl  warriors  from 
A  — vria  and  Media.  According  1<>  llen>dnlii.-  i,!i<-  wlmlr  army 
amounted  to  nmiv  than  a  million  of  men.  The  fleet  consisted 


THE    PEJUS1AN    WARS  153 

of  more  than  twelve  hundred  ships  collected  from  Phoenicia, 
Egypt,  Ionia,  Cyprus,  and  other  maritime  states.  With  this 
prodigious  armament  Xerxes  hoped  to  appall  and  overwhelm 
the  little  armies  and  fleets  of  Greece.  He  advanced  by  way  of 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  to  the  pass  at  Tempe,  and  was  surprised 
to  find  this  point  abandoned.  He  then  pushed  through 
Thessaly  and  approached  the  pass  of  Thermopylae. 

Battles  at  Thermopylae  and  Artemisium. — It  was  at  this 
pass  that  the  Greeks  had  decided  to  resist  the  Persian  advance. 
This  was  no  doubt  the  strongest  defensive  point  in  Greece.  The 
pass  itself  was  a  very  narrow  roadway  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea,  and  could  be  easily  defended  by  a  small  force;  it 
was  also  protected  from  an  attack  from  the  sea  by  the  long 
island  of  Euboea,  so  that  it  could  be  approached  from  the  north 
only  through  the  strait  at 
Artemis'ium  (see  map,  p. 
152).  The  defense  of  the 
pass  was  intrusted  to  the 
brave  Spartan  king  Leon'- 
idas;  while  the  strait  was 
guarded  by  the  Grecian 
fleet  under  a  Spartan  ad- 
miral— the  Athenian  di- 
vision being  commanded  PASS  OF  THERMOPYLAE 
by  Themistocles.  Leonidas  had  with  him  about  four  thousand 
men,  including  three  hundred  Spartans,  whom  he  stationed  be- 
hind an  old  wall  once  built  by  the  Phocians.  That  the  whole 
Spartan  army  was  not  hurried  to  the  defense  of  this  most  im- 
portant position,  was  due  to  a  superstition  similar  to  that 
which  had  before  delayed  the  arrival  of  the  Spartan  troops  at 
Marathon.  But  with  his  small  force  Leonidas  determined  to 
hold  the  pass.  For  two  days  Xerxes  hurled  against  him  as  large 
detachments  of  his  army  as  he  was  able — but  in  vain.  Even  the 
"Ten  Thousand  Immortals"  were  repulsed.  Then  a  citizen 
of  Malis,  who  has  been  branded  as  the  "Judas  of  Greece/' 


154 


THE   GREEK    WORLD 


Ephial'tes  by  name,  revealed  to  Xerxes  a  secret  path  over  the 
mountains,  by  which  a  force  could  be  thrown  in  the  rear  of 
the  Spartan  position.  By  this  act  of  treachery  Thermopylae 
was  lost.  Leonidas  and  his  Spartan  band  preferred  death  to 
dishonor,  and  perished — examples  for  all  time  of  courage  and 
patriotic  devotion. 

At  Artemisium  the  Grecian  fleet  was  held  to  its  duty  by 
the  inspiring  influence  of  Themistocles.  The  fleet  comprised 

nearly  three  hundred 
vessels,  more  than 
half  of  which  were 
furnished  by  Athens. 
By  persuasion,  and 
even  by  bribery, 
Themistocles  induced 
the  Spartan  com- 
mander to  hold  his 
position.  For  three 
successive  days  the 
Greeks  fought  the 
Persian  navy.  Al- 
though these  battles 
were  indecisive,  they 
prevented  the  Persians  from  approaching  Thermopylae  by  the 
sea.  But  when  the  news  came  that  Thermopylae  was  lost,  it 
was  useless  to  hold  this  position  longer;  and  the  fleet  retired 
southward  to  the  island  of  Sal'amis.  All  central  Greece  was 
now  open  to  the  invader. 

Themistocles  and  the  Battle  of  Salamis  (480  B.  c.). — The 
army  of  Xerxes  pushed  through  central  Greece  into  Attica, 
I m  mod  Athens,  and  destroyed  the  temples  on  the  Acropolis. 
The  inhabitants  fled  to  the  neighboring  towns.  The  Persian 
fleet  meanwhile  followed  the  Creeks  to  S;il;imis.  If  \\.-is  here 
that  Theinislndes  by  his  influence  find  :idn>i!ness  lirou;rl)l  on 
the  decisive  battle  of  the  war.  The  Peloponnesian  army  had 


SEAT  OF  THE  SECOND  PERSIAN  WAR 

Route  of  I'ersiiin   Army  ) »— 

Course  of  Persian  Fleet » 


THE    PEESIAN    WARS 


155 


retreated  behind  flu*  wall  thrown  across  ilu>  Isthmus  of  Cor- 
inth, and  its  leaders  insisted  that  the  fleet  should  retire  to  the 
same  place.  But  Themistocles  saw  the  great  advantage  of 
fighting  in  the  narrow  strait  between  Salamis  and  the  Attic 
shore,  where  only  a  part  of  the  Persian  fleet  could  be  brought 
into  action.  A  council  was  called,  and  in  the  heat  of  debate 
Themistocles  was  charged  with  being  a  "  man  without  a  coun- 
try," now  that  Athens  was  lost.  But  he  replied  that  with  a 
hundred  and  eighty  war  ships  at  his  command  he  could  found 
a  city  anywhere.  He  threatened  to  withdraw  his  vessels  and 
sail  to  Italy  if  the  allies  saw  fit  to  abandon  their  Athenian 
comrades.  By  this  threat  the  allies  were  persuaded  to  stand 
firm  and  fight  in  the  strait.  But  to  prevent  any  further  inde- 
cision, Themistocles  sent  a  messenger  to  Xerxes,  giving  the  ad- 
vice, as  coming  from  a  friend,  that  the  Greeks  must  be 
attacked  immediately  to  prevent  their  escape.  Xerxes  accord- 
ingly ordered  up  his  fleet,  and  sent  the  Egyptian  squadron  to 
the  strait  opposite  Megarie,  to  prevent  any  escape  west  of 
Salamis.  At  this  juncture  Aristides  arrived  from  his  retire- 
ment in  JEgina,  and  pleaded  with  his  old  rival  that  they  should 
now  be  rivals  only  in  the  cause  of  Greece.  He  announced  that 
the  battle  must  take  place  at 
Salamis,  as  all  means  of  escape 
were  cut  off.  This  showed  The- 
mistocles that  his  plans  had  been 
successful. 

The  Greek  fleet  now  held  the 
strait  east  of  Salamis.  The  Per- 
sian squadrons  gathered  on  its 
front.  The  Phoenicians  moved 
in  heavy  columns  on  the  right 
and  the  lonians  on  the  left.  The 


BATTLE  OF  SALAMIS,  480  B.  c. 


great  king  sat  upon  a  throne  erected  on  the  slope  of  Mt. 

leos  to  watch  the  conflict.     The  details  of  this  battle  are  un- 

certain; but  the  victory  of  the  Greeks  was  decisive.     The 


156  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

Phoenician  squadron,  upon  which  the  king  chiefly  relied,  was 
shattered.  Nearly  half  of  the  Persian  fleet  was  destroyed;  and 
a  new  glory  crowned  the  loyal  states  of  Greece. 

Continuance  of  the  War  under  Mardonius. — The  victory  at 
Salamis  had  broken  the  naval  power  of  Persia;  but  the  land 
forces  were  still  intact.  Xerxes,  however,  seemed  to  regard 
the  cause  of  Persia  as  lost,  and  ordered  a  general  retreat  of  the 
army.  He  directed  the  remnants  of  his  fleet  to  hasten  to  the 
Hellespont  to  guard  the  bridges  by  which  he  might  recross 
into  Asia,  and  which  wore  now  threatened  by  the  Greeks.  But 
there  was  one  man  who  believed  that  a  Persian  army  might 
still  conquer  Greece.  This  man  was  Mardonius.  He  it  was 
who  had  failed  in  the  first  expedition  under  Darius,  and  who 
had  encouraged  Xerxes  to  undertake  the  present  invasion.  In- 
trusted with  three  hundred  thousand  men,  Mardonius  was  per- 
mitted to  remain  in  Greece  to  retrieve  the  disaster  at  Salamis. 
Before  beginning  his  campaign  the  following  year,  Mardonius 
sought  the  alliance  of  Athens  against  the  rest  of  Greece.  He 
promised  to  aid  the  Athenians  to  rebuild  their  city  and  to  give 
them  all  the  neighboring  territory  that  they  desired.  But  the 
At  hcnians  sent  back  the  word  that  "  so  long  as  the  sun  keeps  its 
course,  we  will  never  join  the  cause  of  Xerxes  "  (Herodotus, 
VIII.,  143).  Attica  was  once  more  invaded,  and  the  Athenians 
were  again  obliged  to  flee  for  safety.  Again  Greece  was  called 
upon  to  resist  the  invaders.  Athens  again  called  upon  Sparta 
for  aid,  which  was  furnished  after  the  usual  delay.  While  the 
Grecian  army  was  being  collected,  Mardonius  retreated  into 
Bceotia,  near  PlataBa,  to  await  the  final  contest. 

Battles  of  Plataea  and  Mycale  (479  B.  c.).— Against  the 
army  of  Mardonius  the  Greeks  brought  a  force  of  about  a  hun- 
dred thousand  men  under  the  command  of  the  Spartan  Pausa'- 
nias.  The  Athenian  division  was  led  by  Aristides.  The  Spar- 
tan commander  was  evidently  convinced  of  the  superiority  of 
the  Athenian  division,  lor  he  insisted  that  it  should  hold  the 
place  of  honor  and  danger  against  tin-  <iron-vst  wing  of  the 


THE    1VKU.S1AN     WAHS 


157 


Persian  army.  After  fighting  and  maneuvering  in  three  differ- 
ent positions,  the  battle  was  finally  decided  near  the  walls 
of  Plataea.  The  Persian 
army  was  nearly  annihi- 
lated. Mardonius  was 
killed.  Another  decisive 
victory  was  thus  added  to 
those  of  Salamis  and 
Marathon.  In  commemo- 
ration of  this  victory  the 
assembled  allies  made  an 
offering  of  thanksgiving 
to  Zeus  Eleuthe'rios  (the 
Deliverer),  and  instituted 
a  public  festival,  called 
the  Eleuthe'ria,  to  be  cele-  BATTLE  OP  PLA™A'  479  B'  °" 
brated  once  in  every  four  years.  The  defensive  alliance 
against  Persia  was  also  renewed ;  this  is  known  as  the  "  League 
of  Platea," 

On  the  same  day,  it  is  said,  on  which  the  battle  of  Plataea 
was  fought,  the  Grecian  fleet,  having  set  out  from  Delos, 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Persian  navy  on  the  Asiatic 
coast  near  the  promontory  of  Myc'ale  (map,  page  152).  This 
^ave  the  Ionian  Greeks  fresh  hope  that  the  day  of  their  deliv- 
erance was  near. 

The  Carthaginian  Attack;  Battle  of  Himera. — While  the 
Persians  were  trying  in  vain  to  conquer  Greece,  the  Cartha- 
ginians, who  were  in  alliance  with  Persia,  were  trying  to  con- 
quer Sicily.  Carthage,  we  remember,  was  a  colony  of  Phoeni- 
cia; it  had  already  an  extensive  empire  in  northern  Africa  and 
held  certain  cities  in  the  western  part  of  Sicily.  Carthage,  like 
Persia,  represented  the  civilization  of  the  Orient;  and  the  strug- 
gle in  Sicily,  as  well  as  that  in  Greece,  was  a  conflict  between 
Orientalism  and  the  new  culture  of  Europe.  The  largest  part 
of  the  coast  of  Sicily  had  long  before  been  settled  by  Greek 


158  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

colonies,  and  formed  a  part  of  what  we  have  called  "  Western 
Greece  "  (which  also  included  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  south- 
ern coasts  of  Italy).1  The  cities  in  Sicily  had  become  the  cen- 
ters of  Greek  civilization,  which  was  now  exposed  to  the  attack 
of  Carthage.  The  leading  city  in  the  defense  of  Western 
Greece  was  Syracuse,  now  under  the  rule  of  the  tyrant  Gelo 
(or  Gelon).  The  decisive  battle  of  this  war  took  place  at 
Himera  (480  B.  c.),  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily.  Here  the 
Carthaginians  suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Gelo. 
According  to  tradition  the  battle  of  Himera  was  fought  on  the 
same  day  that  the  Greeks  gained  their  decisive  victory  over 
the  Persians  at  Salamis. 

The  Liberation  of  Greece. — The  story  of  these  struggles  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  their  foreign  enemies  is  of  more  than  or- 
dinary significance;  for  they  belong  to  the  most  heroic  period 
of  Greek  history.  This  war  against  Persia  and  Carthage  has 
been  aptly  called  "the  war  of  liberation."  It  preserved 
Greece  and  Europe  from  Oriental  domination.  It  revealed  to 
the  Greeks  their  own  character  and  strength.  The  battles  of 
Marathon  and  ThermopylaB  and  Salamis  and  Plataa  taught 
them  that  courage  and  patriotism  are  virtues  necessary  to  na- 
tional independence.  They  gave  to  the  Greek  people  the 
consciousness  of  unity  and  showed  them  the  importance  of  their 
own  institutions  and  culture.  They  also  gave  a  ne<v  inspira-* 
tion  to  Greek  life  which  was  expressed  in  art  and  literature. 
This  new  spirit  is  shown  in  the  lyric  poetry  of  Simon'ides, 
who  sang  the  praises  of  the  dead  heroes,  and  of  Pindar, 
who  glorified  the  national  institutions  of  the  Greeks.  But 
more  than  all,  this  war  gave  to  the  Greeks  a  half  century  of 
comparative  peace  in  which  they  might  devote  themselves  to 
fulfilling  their  high  mission  in  the  world,  unhindered  by  for- 
eign interference. 

>The  Greek  cities  In  Sicily  included  the  Ionian  colonies  of  Cnt'ana, 
Naxos,  Zancle  (Messa'na),  and  Ilim'era ;  and  also  the  Dorian  colonies  of 
Syracuse,  Gela,  Agrigen'tum,  and  Selinus  (see  map,  p.  110). 


THE  PERSIAN    WARS  159 

SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  THE  FIRST  PERSIAN  INVASION,  UNDER  DARIUS. — Greece  and 
Persia. — The    Asiatic    Cities    and    the    Ionian    Revolt. — Plans    of 
Darius    against    Greece. — Persian    Invasion    under     Datis     and 
Artaphernes. — Miltiades  and  the  Battle  of  Marathon. 

II.  ATHENS    DURING    THE    TEN    YEARS'    RESPITE. — Democratic 
Progress    at   Athens. — Aristides    and    Themistocles. — The    Naval 
Programme     of     Themistocles. — Athens     Becomes     a     Maritime 
Power. — The  Congress  of  Corinth. 

III.  THE  SECOND  PERSIAN  INVASION,  UNDER  XERXES. — Prepara- 
tions   and    Advance    of    Xerxes. — Battles    at    Thermopyla}    and 
Artemisium. — Themistocles  and  the  Battle  of  Salamis. — Continu- 
ance   of    the    War    under    Mardonius. — Battles    of    Plataea    and 
Mycale.— The    Carthaginian    Attack;     Battle    of    Himera.— The 
Liberation  of  Greece. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Smith,  Win.,  Ch.  16,  "The  Ionic  Revolt";  Ch.  17,  "The  Battle  of 
Marathon";  Ch.  18,  "The  Battles  of  Thermopylae  and  Ar- 
temisium"; Ch.  19,  "The  Battle  of  Marathon"  (10).1 

Cox,  History,  Part  II.,  Ch.  5,  "Invasion  and  Flight  of  Xerxes" 
(10). 

—  Greeks  and  Persians,  Ch.  5,  "The  Ionian  Revolt"  (10). 

—  Greek  Statesmen,   "Miltiades,"   "Aristides,"   "Themistocles" 
(26). 

Oman,  Chs.  19,  20,  "The  Invasion  of  Xerxes"  (10). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  13,  "Themistocles  and  the  Naval  Pro- 
gramme" (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  7,  "The  Perils  of  Greece"   (10). 

Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  3,  "The  Great  Invasions"  (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  1,  "The  War  of  Liberation"  (10). 

Plutarch,  "Aristides,"  "Themistocles"   (26). 

Herodotus,  Bk.  I.,  Chs.  1-38,  61-66  (reign  of  Cambyses) ;  Bk.  VII., 
Chs.  1-4  (last  days  of  Darius);  Bk.  VIII.,  Chs.  74-95  (battle 
of  Salamis)  (17). 

JEschylus,  Drama  of  "The  Persians"  (account  of  the  battle  of 
Salamis)  (17). 

1The   figure   in   parenthesis   refers   to   the  number  of  the  topic   in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE    ATHENIAN    EMPIKE;    AGE    OF    PERICLES 

I.     ATHENS  AND  THE  DELIAN  COM  I:DI:RACY 

The  New  Athens  under  Themistocles. — We  have  seen  the 
important  part  taken  by  Athens  in  the  Persian  wars.  Herod- 
otus tells  us  that  in  this  great  crisis  the  Athenians  were  the 
saviors  of  Greece — that,  next  to  the  gods,  they  repulsed  the 
invader.  It  is  also  true  that  they  were  the  greatest  sufferers  in 
the  cause  of  Greece.  Their  city  had  been  twice  occupied  l»\ 
the  enemy  and  was  now  a  heap  of  ruins.  The  inhabitants  had 
been  obliged  to  flee  for  safety  to  the  neighboring  islands  of 
Salamis  and  yEgina.  The  first  need  of  the  Athenians  was  now 
a  home.  Themistocles  determined  that  on  the  ruins  of  the 
old  city  there  should  be  built  a  new  Athens,  surrounded  by 
strong  and  extensive  walls  sufficient  to  protect  the  people  in 
any  future  war.  In  spite  of  the  jealousy  and  opposition  of  the 
Peloponnesian  states  Themistocles,  by  his  adroitness,  was  able 
to  outwit  his  opponents  and  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

When  the  walls  of  Athens  were  erected,  Themistocles  turned 
his  attention  to  strengthening  the  harbor  of  Athens.  This 
was  located  at  the  Piraeus,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  about  four 
miles  from  the  city.  The  fortifications  begun  after  the  first 
Persian  invasion  were  now  completed;  and  became  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  commercial  growth  of  Athens.  There  soon 
grew  up  at  the  Piraeus  a  large  commercial  population — mer- 
chants, sailors,  and  resident  foreigners  who  carried  on  trade. 
Thus  Themistocles  not  only  created  the  naval  power  of  Athrn< 
and  secured  the  triumph  of  Greece  during  the  great  Persian 
war;  but  he  also  rescued  Athens  from  the  disasters  of  that 

160 


THE    ATHENIAN    EMPIRE  161 

war,  and  raised  her  to  a  position  in  which  she  might  com- 
mand the  commerce  of  the  sea.  To  him  more  than  to  any 
other  man,  Athens  was  indebted  for  her  maritime  and  commer- 
cial supremacy;  upon  the  foundations  which  he  laid  was  built 


THE  PIRAEUS,  THE  PORT  OF  ATHENS  (Restoration) 

the  Athenian  empire.  Although  he  had  many  faults,  and  was 
at  last  driven  into  exile,  he  was  yet  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
statesmen  of  Greece. 

Athenian  Supremacy  in  the  -ffigean. — Athens  took  another 
step  in  the  development  of  her  power  by  getting  command  of 
the  Grecian  fleet  in  the  ^Egean  Sea.  The  fleet  was  now  en- 
gaged in  freeing  the  cities  that  had  fallen  under  the  Persian 
power  during  the  late  war.  As  Sparta  had  been,  since  the 
congress  of  Corinth  (p.  150),  the  recognized  leader  of  Greece, 
the  chief  command  of  the  ^Egean  fleet  was  in  the  hands  of  a 
Spartan  admiral,  who  was  no  other  than  Pausanias,  the  victor 
of  Plata^a.  The  Athenian  division  of  the  fleet  was  under  the 
command  of  Aristides,  with  whom  was  associated  Cimon,  the 
son  of  the  great  Miltiades.  Pausanias  began  his  work  well,  by 
freeing  part  of  Cyprus  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  and  By- 
zantium in  Thrace.  But  with  the  spoils  of  Byzantium  in  his 
hands,  Pausanias  became  arrogant  toward  the  Greeks  and 

MOJJEY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. —  10 


162  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

friendly  toward  the  Persians.  He  even  offered  to  ally  himself 
with  the  Persian  king,  and  to  betray  to  him  the  states  of 
Greece.  When  the  officers  of  the  fleet  compared  the  brutal  and 
treacherous  conduct  of  Pausanias  with  the  upright  character 
of  Aristides,  they  with  one  accord  turned  over  the  command 
from  the  Spartan  to  the  Athenian  admiral.  By  thus  obtaining 
the  chief  command  of  the  Grecian  fleet,  Athens  acquired  the 
supreme  control  of  the  zEgean  Sea.  Sparta  withdrew  from  the 
leadership  which  she  had  held  since  the  congress  of  Corinth, 
and  relapsed  into  her  former  position  as  simply  the  head  of 
the  Peloponnesian  League.1 

Formation  of  the  Delian  Confederacy  under  Aristides.— 
The  work  of  freeing  the  cities  of  the  J^gean  was  continued  by 
Aristides.  It  now  seemed  necessary  to  provide  for  their  com- 
mon defense  against  any  future  encroachments  of  Persia. 
This  was  done  by  the  organization  of  a  confederacy  under  the 
leadership  of  Athens.  The  chief  duty  of  organizing  the  new 
league  fell  to  Aristides,  the  commander  of  the  fleet.  He 
formed  alliances  with  the  cities,  not  only  on  the  islands,  but 
also  on  the  Asiatic  coasts,  for  the,  purpose  of  forming  a  union 
to  resist  the  Persian  power.  All  members  of  the  confederacy 
were  to  be  equal;  they  were  to  send  delegates  to  a  common  con- 
gress; and  they  were  to  furnish  ships  or  money  for  the  com- 
mon cause.  The  confederacy  was  to  be  a  perpetual  union;  and 
no  member  could  withdraw  without  the  consent  of  the  others. 
The  island  of  Delos,  the  seat  of  the  shrine  of  Apollo,  was  se- 
lected as  the  place  where  the  common  meetings  were  to  be  held, 
and  where  the  common  treasury  was  to  be  established.  Tin* 
assessments  for  the  treasury  were  intrusted  to  Aristides,  in 
whose  justice  all  had  confidence.  The  Confederacy  of  Delos 
was  essentially  an  Ionian  league,  under  the  leadership  of 

'The  fate  of  Pausanlns  was  suited  to  his  crime.  He  was  recalled  to 
Sparta.  When  the  evidence  of  his  crime  hecame  clear  and  he  was  ahout  to 
be  arrested,  he  fled  for  safety  Into  the  temple  of  Athena.  But  this  did  not 
protect  him  from  the  vengeance  of  the  people.  The  door  of  the  temple  was 
closed  by  n  wall,  and  the  traitor  was  starved  to  death. 


THE    ATHENIAN    EMP1KE  163 

Athens ;  and  it  was  an  offset  to  the  Dorian  league  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus under  the  leadership  of  Sparta.  Henceforth  the 
interests  of  Athens  and  of  Sparta  became  more  and  more 
opposed  to  each  other;  and  they  came  to  be  recognized  as  the 
two  rival  powers  of  Hellas. 

Growth  of  Imperialism  under  Cimon. — The  work  which  was 
begun  by  Aristides  was  completed  by  his  colleague  and  suc- 
cessor, Cimon.     Cimon  inherited  the  conservative  spirit  and 
military  ability  of  his  renowned  father  Miltiades.    His  policy 
comprised  peace  with  Sparta  and  war  with  Persia.    His  chief 
work  was  to  enlarge  and  make  strong  the  newly  formed  con- 
federacy.   He  proceeded  to  Thrace  and  freed  many  cities  on 
that  coast.     He  reduced  the  rocky  is- 
land of  Scyros,  where  a  nest  of  pirates 
threatened  the  commerce   of   Athens; 
and  he  planted  upon  it  a  colony  of 
Athenian  citizens.      But  his  greatest 
military  achievement  was  the  defeat  of 
the  land  and  naval  forces  of  Persia 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurym'- 
edon  in  southern  Asia  Minor  (466  B.  c.; 
map,  p.  111).    This  double  victory  in- 
CIMON  (So-called)         sured  the  freedom  of  the  cities  of  Caria 
Prom  a  gem  and  Lyci^  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  and 

thus  added  to  the  strength  of  the  confederacy. 

While  the  chief  purpose  of  Cimon  was  to  destroy  the  Persian 
influence  in  the  ^Egean,  he  was  unfortunately  compelled  to 
use  force  to  hold  together  the  confederate  cities.  For  example, 
the  island  of  Naxos  wished  to  withdraw  from  the  league;  but 
it  was  besieged  and  reduced  to  submission.  Again,  the  island 
of  Thasos,  embittered  by  a  quarrel  with  Athens,  revolted ;  but 
it  was  compelled  to  submit  by  the  allied  fleet  under  Cimon. 
The  tendency  of  this  policy  of  coercion  was  to  change  the  allied 
cities  into  subjects,  and  to  make  Athens  not  merely  the  leader 
of  a  confederacy,  but  the  sovereign  of  an  empire. 


164  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

* 

J  ealousy  between  Sparta  and  Athens. — The  whole  course  of 
events  at  this  time  was  to  increase  the  jealousy  existing  between 
Sparta  and  Athens.  Sparta  had  complained  that  the  Athe- 
nians had  shown  deceit  and  an  undue  spirit  of  independence 
in  fortifying  their  city.  She  was  also  chagrined  at  losing  the 
i-oi nmand  of  the  fleet,  and  was  envious  of  the  growing  power 
of  Athens.  On  the  other  hand,  Athens  charged  the  Spartans 
with  a  treacherous  attempt  to  assist  the  people  of  Thasos  in 
their  recent  revolt.  It  was  the  policy  of  Cimon  to  appease, 
so  far  as  possible,  this  enmity  between  the  leading  states  of 
Greece,  and  to  present  a  united  front  to  Persia,  their  common 
enemy.  Sparta  was  now  suffering  from  the  effects  of  a  terrible 
earthquake  and  from  a  revolt  of  her  subject  population,  the 
helots.  She  appealed  to  Athens  for  aid  in  putting  down  this 
revolt.  Cimon  was  in  favor  of  giving  this  aid.  The  new 
leaders  of  the  democracy,  Ephialtes  and  Per'icles,  opposed  it. 
But  the  influence  of  Cimon  prevailed,  and  the  Athenian  assem- 
bly decided  to  send  an  army  to  assist  the  Spartans  in  their 
distress.  When  the  army  arrived  and  did  not  succeed  immedi- 
ately in  putting  down  the  revolt,  the  Spartan?  thought  its 
failure  was  due  to  treachery,  and  dismissed  it  insolently. 
This  piece  of  effrontery  served  to  widen  the  breach  between 
the  two  states.  The  party  of  Cimon.  which  had  favored 
Sparta,  lost  its  influence,  and  Cimon  himself  was  ostracized 
(461  B.  c.) 

II.     PERICLES  AND  THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIRE 

Pericles  and  his  Policy. — In  the  same  year  in  which  Cimon 
was  exiled,  Ephialtes,  the  chief  leader  of  the  democratic  party, 
was  assassinated.  By  the  removal  of  these  two  party  chiefs, 
Pericles  became  the  leading  man  in  Athens. 

In  his  character  this  great  man  united  many  of  the  best  qual- 
ities of  his  predecessors, — the  skillful  statesmanship  of  The- 
niMoclrs.  the  patriotic  spirit  and  democratic  sympathies  <>!' 
Aristides,  the  military  accomplishments  and  imperial  ambition 


THE    ATHENIAN    EMPIEE 


165 


of  Cimon.  But  he  added  to  these  the  power  of  persuasm-  <•!<>- 
quence,  which  made  him  the  foremost  orator  of  his  day,  and 
gave  him  almost  absolute  con- 
trol of  the  Athenian  assembly. 
His  political  policy  was  to  ex- 
tend and  secure  the  imperial 
power  of  Athens,  and  to  make 
it  the  foremost  city  of  the 
world.  This  policy  included: 
( 1 )  the  extension  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Athens;  (2)  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  land  empire 
over  the  continental  states  of 
Greece;  (3)  the  completion  of 
the  maritime  empire  over  the 
cities  of  the  ^Egean;  and  (4) 

PERICTES  ^e  weakening  of  the  power  of 

Persia,  not  only  by  protecting 

the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  but  also  by  aiding  the  Persian 
subjects  in  their  revolts,  especially  in  Egypt  and  in  Cyprus.- 

The  Building  of  the  Long  Walls. — Pericles  followed  the 
policy  of  Themis- 
tocles  in  seeking 
first  of  all  to  make 
Athens  an  impreg- 
nable city.  The 
fortifications  erect- 
ed by  Themistocles 
about  Athens  and 
about  the  Piraeus 
had  created  two 
separate  centers  of  THE  WALLS  OF  ATHENS* 

defense.    Pericles  desired  to  unite  these  two  places  by  one  sys- 

irThere  is  some  question  as  to  the  exact  location  of  the  "Phaleric  wall," 
and  some  writers  even  doubt  that  there  was  such  a  wall. 


SARON-JC 


166  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

tern  of  defensive  works,  and  thus  to  prevent  Athens  from  being 
cut  off  from  her  harbor  and  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  This 
defensive  system  may  have  been  begun  by  Cimon;  but  it  was 
completed  by  Pericles.  One  of  the.  new  walls,  the  southern, 
ran  from  the  city  to  the  Bay  of  Phalerum;  and  another,  the 
northern,  ran  to  the  harbor  of  the  Piraeus.  In  a  few  years  a 
third  and  middle  wall  was  erected  near  and  parallel  to  the 
northern  one,  the  two  together  being  known  as  the  "  Long 
Walls."  These  formed  a  wide  and  secure  avenue  from  the  city 
to  the  Piraeus.  Athens  and  the  Piraeus  were  thus  united  in  a 
single  fortified  area,  which  formed  a  military  and  naval  base 
of  operations  for  the  whole  empire. 

Athenian  Attempts  at  a  Land  Empire. — Pericles  desired  to 
extend  the  influence  of  Athens  upon  the  land  as  well  as  upon 
the  sea,  and  thus  to  make  Athens  the  head  of  a  continental  as 
well  as  a  maritime  league.  The  first  step  in  this  direction 
was  taken  as  the  result  of  an  alliance  which  had  already  been 
formed  by  Athens  with  Argos  and  Megara.  This  alliance  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  the  neighboring  Dorian  states,  Corinth  and 
/Egina ;  a  war  followed,  and  ^Egina  was  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  a  tributary  state.  The  next  step  was  the  result  of  an 
attempt  made  by  Sparta  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  central 
Greece.  This  brought  on  a  war  between  Athens,  on  the  one 
side,  and  Sparta  and  Boeotia,  on  the  other.  After  battles  at 
Tan'agra  (457  B.  c.)  and  (Enoph'yta  (456  B.  c. ;  map,  p.  168), 
several  disaffected  states  either  became  the  willing  allies  of 
Athens,  or  were  compelled  to  join  the  new  continental  league. 
By  these  two  movements  the  Athenian  power  was  extended  over 
most  of  central  Greece. 

Completion  of  the  Maritime  Empire. — While  Athens  was 
gaining  new  allies  on  the  land,  she  was  also  obtaining  greater 
power  over  her  allies  upon  the  sea.  The  members  of  the  Delian 
Confederacy  were  at  first  expected  simply  in  furnish  ships  and 
sufficient  money  to  maintain  the  fleet.  Soon  they  were  in- 
clined to  make  their  contributions  entirely  in  money,  while 


THK     ATM  KM  AN     KMlMliK  167 

retaining  their  independence.  Afterward  the  contributions 
were  regarded  as  tribute  due  to  Athens,  which  Athens  had 
a  right  to  collect.  Again,  it  was  at  first  expected  that  the 
affairs  of  the  confederacy  were  to  be  managed  by  a  congress 
of  delegates,  meeting  at  Delos;  but  the  allies  soon  regarded 
these  meetings  as  irksome,  and  the  political  control  of  the  con- 
federacy gradually  passed  into  the  hands  of  Athens.  Finally, 
the  common  treasury  was  transferred  from  Delos  to  Athens 
(about  454  B.  c.).  By  these  steps  the  political  and  financial 
administration  of  the  league  became  completely  centralized  in 
Athens ;  and  the  Delian  Confederacy  became  transformed  into 
an  Athenian  empire.  Of  all  the  members  of  the  original  con- 
federacy, only  three — Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Samos — were  allowed 
to  retain  their  position  as  equal  and  independent  allies. 

Eestoration  and  Death  of  Cimon. — After  the  empire  was 
finally  established,  Cimon,  who  had  been  recalled  from  his 
banishment,  recovered  for  a  brief  time  his  influence  over  the 
Athenian  assembly;  and  his  policy  of  peace  with  Sparta  and' 
war  with  Persia  again  found  favor  with  the  people.  A  Five 
Years'  Truce  was  accordingly  formed  between  Athens  and 
Sparta  (450  B.  c.),  by  which  each  party  agreed  to  respect 
the  rights  and  possessions  of  the  other.  Cimon  then  set  out 
on  a  new  expedition  against  Cyprus,  in  which  island  Persia 
was  now  attempting  to  reestablish  her  authority.  This  ex- 
pedition resulted  in  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Persians,  and 
also  in  the  death  of  Cimon  (449  B.  c.).  It  is  said  that  Cimon 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Persia;  but  concerning  this 
there  is  much  doubt.  With  the  death  of  Cimon,  Pericles  re- 
gained his  previous  position  as  the  ruling  spirit  of  Athens. 

Failure  of  the  Imperial  Policy  of  Athens. — The  wonderful 
energy  which  Athens  displayed  at  this  time  is  evident  when 
we  consider  that,  within  a  period  of  thirty  years,  she  had  re- 
covered all  the  JEgean  cities  lost  during  the  Persian  wars,  and 
had  established  her  authority  over  a  large  part  of  European 
Greece.  But  her  ambitious  policy  to  maintain  an  empire 


ATI  1 1  ;X  FAX   KMIMKK 

ITS  GHEATKST  KXTEM 

About  i:>0  R.  C. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


No.  8. 


EXPLANATIONS. 

Members  and  Allied  States 
Dependent  and  Tributary  Statet 

TRIBUTARY  DISTRICTS. 

f.  Island  District. 
II.  Thracian  District. 

III.  Hellespontine  District. 

IV.  Ionian  District. 
V.  Carian. District. 


East  26  from 


Greenwic 


169 


TRIBUTARY  STATES  OF  THE   ATHENIAN  EMPIRE 

The  following  table  gives  a  list  of  the  tributary  states  that  paid  annu- 
ally more  than  one  talent,  arranged  by  tributary  districts  :  — 

I.  Island  District.  —  JEgina,  Ceos,  Cythnos,  Siphnos,  Paros,  Naxos, 
Tenos,  Andros,  Carystus  and  Chalcis  in  Eubo3a,  and  Hephsestia  in 
Lemnos. 

II.  Thracian  District.  —  Peparethus,  Methone,  ^Enea,  Potidsea,  Mende, 
Scione,  Spartolus,  Olynthus,  Galepsus,  Torone,  Singus,  Acanthus, 
Abdera,  Maronea,  ^Enos,  Thasos,  Samothrace. 

III.  Hellespontine  District.  —  Perinthus,  Selymbria,  Byzantium,  Chalce- 

don,  Cyzicus,  Proconnesus,  Lampsacus,  Arisbe,  Abydos,  Tenedos. 

IV.  Ionian  District.  —  Myrina,   Cyme,  Phocaea,  Clazoinenae,  Erythrae, 

Teos,  Colophon,  Ephesus,  Miletus. 

V.  Carian  District.  —  Halicarnassus,  Ceramus,  Cnidus,  Chersonesus  in 
Caria,  Calynda,  Phaselis,  Cos,  Astypalsea ;  also  Camirus,  lalysus, 
and  Lindus  in  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  above  tributary,  states  arranged  according 
to  the  amount  of  their  annual  tribute  :  30  talents,  JEgina,  Thasos ;  i6£ 
talents,  Paros;  15  talents,  Abdera,  Byzantium;  12  talents,  Lampsacus; 
10  talents,  JEnos,  Chalcis,  Perinthus ;  9  talents,  Chalcedon,  Cyme,  Cyzi- 
cus ;  7  talents,  Erythrae ;  6f  talents,  Naxos ;  6  talents,  Andros,  Ephesus, 
lalysus,  Camirus,  Lindus,  Potidaea,  Samothrace,  Scione,  Teos,  Torone ; 
5  talents,  Carystus,  Cos,  Mende,  Miletus,  Selymbria ;  4  talents,  Abydos, 
Ceos;  3  talents,  JEnea,  Acanthus,  Chersonesus  in  Caria,  Hephaestia, 
Cnidus,  Cythnos,  Methone,  Peparethus,  Phaselis,  Proconnesus,  Siphnc.?, 
Tenedos,  Tenos ;  2  talents,  Arisbe,  Olynthus,  Phocaea,  Singus,  Sparto- 
lus; i§  talents,  Halicarnassus;  i£  talents,  Astypalaea,  Galepsus,  Calynda, 
Ceramus,  Clazomenae,  Colophon,  Maronea,  Myrina.  (Cf.  Beloch,  Ghrie- 
chische  Geschichte,  Ed.  1893,  L,  402.) 

The  whole  number  of  tributary  states  was  as  follows  :  Island  District, 
41 ;  Thracian  District,  68 ;  Hellespontine  District,  50 ;  Ionian  District, 
42 ;  Carian  District,  62 ;  undetermined,  4  ;  total,  267.  (Cf.  Boeckh, 
Staatshaushaltung  der  Athener,  Ed.  1886,  IL,  362-369.) 


170 


THE    ATHENIAN    EMPIRE  171 

upon  the  land  proved  a  failure.  She  was  soon  beset  with  dilli- 
culties  and  afflicted  with  reverses  which  weakened  her  influence 
among  her  continental  allies.  News  had  already  come  that  a 
fleet  of  two  hundred  vessels,  sent  some  time  before  to  free 
!  \irypt  from  Persia,  had  been  annihilated  (454  B.  c.).  Sparta 
still  claimed  the  right  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  central 
Greece.  Boeotia  opposed  the  effort  to  establish  democratic  gov- 
ernments within  her  borders,  and  defeated  the  Athenians  in 
a  battle  at  Corone'a  (417  B.  c.).  The  spirit  of  revolt  ex- 
tended to  other  cities;  and  one  after  another  the  Athenian  land 
allies  renounced  their  allegiance.  Under  these  depressing  cir- 
cumstances Pericles  concluded  a  Thirty  Years'  Truce  with 
Sparta  (445  B.  c.),  by  which  each  party  was  restricted  to  its 
present  possessions.  Athens  thus  lost  her  peninsular  empire, 
but  retained  her  empire  upon  the  sea. 

The  "  Years  of  Peace  "  (445-431  B.  c.).— After  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  treaty  with  Sparta,  there  followed  a  period  of  peace, 
during  which  Pericles  gained  his  highest  distinction  as  a  patron 
of  Athenian  culture.  Pericles  was  himself  a  man  of  high  intel- 
lectual accomplishments  and  of  refined  artistic  taste.  He  rep- 
resented in  his  own  person  and  character  the  best  qualities 
of  the  Greek  people.  While  he  exercised  his  influence  to 
strengthen  the  Athenian  democracy  and  also  to  maintain  the 
authority  of  Athens  over  her  maritime  empire,  his  most  im- 
portant and  enduring  work  was  the  encouragement  that  he 
gave  to  literature  and  art.  It  is  on  account  of  his  patronage 
of  culture  more  than  anything  else  that  the  period  of  his  ad- 
ministration has  been  called  the  "  Age  of  Pericles."  It  was 
then  that  Athens  became  the  intellectual  and  artistic  capital  of 
Hellas.  The  influence  of  Pericles  did  not  cease,  however,  with 
the  termination  of  the  years  of  peace,  but  continued,  for  nearly 
a  century,  to  give  character  to  the  culture  of  Greece.1 

1  The  culture  of  Athens  during  the  age  of  Pericles  was  so  closely  con- 
nected with  that  which  followed  his  death,  that  we  shall  consider  them 
together  as  forming  successive  phases  of  the  "Attic  period."  See  pp. 
197-223. 


172  THE    GREEK   WORLD 

III.     THE  ATHENIAN  CONSTITUTION  UNDER  PERICLES 

Character  of  the  Athenian  Democracy. — It  was  during  the 
time  of  Pericles  that  the  democratic  constitution  of  Athens 
reached  its  highest  development.  We  have  already  seen  the 
general  tendency  in  the  direction  of  popular  government — in 
the  decline  of  the  monarchy,,  in  the  growth  of  the  archonship, 
in  the  extension  of  the  franchise  by  Solon,  and  in  the  radical 
reforms  of  Clisthenes.  And  this  popular  tendency  had  con- 
tinued since  the  time  of  Clisthenes.  Ephialtes  had  restricted 
the  ancient  privileges  of  the  Areopagus;  and  Pericles  had  in- 
duced the  people  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  exercise  of  their 
political  duties,  by  introducing  a  system  of  payment  for  public 
service. 

By  the  term  "  democracy,"  the  Athenians  understood  a  state 
in  which  all  the  powers  of  government  are  exercised  directly 
by  the  citizens,  and  in  which  all  citizens  are  equal  before  the 
law.  The  Athenian  idea  of  democracy  differed  from  the  mod- 
ern idea  chiefly  in  two  ways:  first,  in  that  the  Athenians  had 
very  little  notion  of  the  modern  idea  of  representation  ;  and 
second,  in  that  the  number  of  citizens  formed  a  comparatively 

all  part  of  the  whole  population. 

Classes  of  the  Population. — We  may  get  an  idea  of  the 
limited  nature  of  the  Athenian  democracy  by  looking  at  the 
different  classes  of  persons  residing  in  Attica,  which  formed 
the  territory  of  the  Athenian  city  state:  the  slaves,  the  resi- 
dent foreigners  or  "metics,"  and  the  citizens. 

(1)  The  slaves  of  Attica  have  been  estimated  at  about  100r 
000.  They  included  captives  taken  in  war  and  persons  im- 
ported from  the  slave  markets  on  the  Thracian  an  I  Srviliian 
coasts.  They  were  employed  in  domestic  and  agricultural 
labor,  and  were  even  allowed  to  work  for  themselves  on  consid- 
eration of  paying  their  master  a  yearly  sum.  The  state  some- 
times employed  slaves  as  policemen  and  dorks.  Tin*  slave. 
however,  had  no  political  or  civil  rights,  although  he  might  be 


THE    ATHENIAN    EMPIRE  173 

protected  from  the  cruelty  of  his  master,  and  sometimes,  in 
grave  emergencies,  might  be  called  upon  to  serve  in  the  army 
or  the  fleet. 

(2)  The  resident  foreigners,  or  "  metics,"  numbered  perhaps 
10,000.     These  persons  were  engaged  mostly  in  trade,  and 
formed  a  valuable  part  of  the  population.     But  they  had  no 
share  in  the  government.    They  could  not  hold  land  in  Attica. 
They  were  obliged  to  pay  a  yearly  tax  and  sometimes  to  serve 
in  the   army  and  navy;   for  example,   as   shield-bearers   or 
rowers.    Every  resident  foreigner  was  bound  to  choose  a  citi- 
zen to  represent  and  protect  his  interests. 

(3)  The  class  of  citizens  formed  the  rest  of  the  population 
of  Attica.     The  early  policy  of  admitting  foreigners  to  citizen- 
ship was  changed  by  Pericles,  who  restricted  citizenship  to  those 
who  were  born  of  an  Athenian  father  and  an  Athenian  mother. 
The    whole   number   of    Athenian    citizens,    including   men, 
women,  and  children,  was  at  the  time  of  Pericles  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  120,000.     Of  this  population  the  number  of  voters 
is  generally  estimated  as  about  30,000.     This  comparatively 
small  body  of  persons,  scattered  through  the  local  districts — 
that  is,  the  tribes  and  denies — of  Attica,  formed  the  Athenian 
democracy. 

The  Athenian  Assembly,  or  Ecclesia. — The  most  important 
political  body  in  the  state  was  the  ecclesia,  or  general  assembly 
of  the  people.  It  consisted  of  the  whole  body  of  male  citizens 
above  eighteen  years  of  age.  It  met  forty  times  each  year  on 
the  Pnyx — a  sloping  hill  backed  by  a  perpendicular  rook, 
where  was  located  the  bema,  the  stone  platform  upon  which 
the  orators  stood  to  address  the  people.  The  assembly  was  the 
ultimate  source  of  political  authority.  Here  any  citizen  could 
speak  and  vote  upon  questions  properly  submitted  by  the 
council.  The  assembly  was  often  brought  under  the  power 
of  some  influential  man,  whose  character  and  oratorical  ability 
enabled  him  to  sway  the  multitude  and  to  become  the  "  leader 
of  the  people,"  or,  as  Aristoph'anes  puts  it,  "  the  master  of  the 


174 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


THE  BEMA  ON  THE  PNYX 

stone  in  the  Pnyx."  Thucyd'ides  describes  Athens  at  the  time 
of  Pericles  as  "  a  democracy  ruled  hy  its  ablest  citizen." 

The  Athenian  Council,  or  Boule*. — Since  the  decline  of  the 
Areopagus,  the  most  important  political  body  after  the  assem- 
bly was  the  council  of  five  hundred.  The  council  was  com- 
posed of  ten  sections,  being  made  up  of  fifty  members,  at 
least  thirty  years  of  age,  chosen  annually  by  lot  from  each 
of  the  ten  local  tribes.  This  body  exercised  the  highest  admin- 
istrative and  executive  powers  in  the  state.  It  prepared  the 
measures  to  be  submitted  to  the  assembly.  It  could  itself 
pass  ordinances,  provided  they  did  not  conflict  with  the  exist- 
ing laws.  It  had  charge  of  the  public  buildings,  festivals,  and 
religious  ceremonies.  It  had  control  of  the  public  finances. 
It  saw  that  the  laws  of  the  state  were  carried  into  execution, 
and  in  certain  exceptional  cases  it  cxcrciscil  judicial  functions. 

The  Athenian  Magistrates;  the  Generals. — As  the  decline 
of  the  Areopagus  was  followed  by  the  growing  importance  of 


THE    ATHENIAN    EMPIRE  175 

1 1 ic  c-ouncil,  so  the  decline  of  the  archonship  was  attended  by 
the  growth  of  the  "generalship"  as  an  executive  office.  The 
ten  strategi,  or  generals,  came  to  be  the  most  important  magis- 
trates in  the  government.  On  account  of  the  fact  that  they 
required  a  special  kind  of  ability,  they  were  elected,  not  by  lot, 
but  by  the  vote  of  the  assembly.  The  first  duty  of  the  generals 
was  to  command  the  army,  but  to  this  were  added  other  func- 
tions. They  had  charge  of  the  means  for  defending  the  state — 
the  maintenance  of  the  fortifications,  the  army,  and  the  navy. 
They  also  had  charge  of  foreign  affairs,  the  negotiation  of 
treaties,  and  the  receiving  of  ambassadors.  They  furthermore 
had  the  power  to  call  extra  sessions  of  the  assembly,  if  in  their 
judgment  the  public  interests  required  it. 

The  Athenian  Courts;  the  Dicasteries. — One  of  the  most 
peculiar  features  of  the  Athenian  constitution  was  the  organi- 
zation of  the  courts.  The  old  council  of  the  Areopagus  re- 
tained a  certain  jurisdiction  over  some  grave  offenses,  like  mur- 
der. But  the  great  majority  of  judicial  cases  were  tried  by 
jurors  drawn  from  the  body  of  citizens,  and  from  these  courts 
there  was  no  appeal.  The  whole  jury  list  (helicea)  was  made 
up  of  six  thousand  citizens,  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  who 
each  year  voluntarily  presented  themselves  before  the  archon 
and  took  an  oath  to  perform  their  duties  faithfully.  This 
whole  judicial  body  was  divided  into  ten  sections,  or  "  dicas'- 
teries,"  of  five  hundred  members  each — leaving  a  thousand 
supernumeraries  who  could  be  drawn  upon  when  necessary. 
The  jurors  serving  on  a  single  case  were  drawn  from  these 
sections,  and  might  number  two  hundred  or  more.  From 
the  time  of  Pericles  the  jurors  received  a  small  pay  for  their 
services.  The  popular  character  of  the  Athenian  courts  shows 
the  extreme  democratic  principles  which  controlled  the  state, 
since  an  opportunity  was  given  to  every  citizen  at  some  time  to 
share  in  the  administration  of  justice. 

The  Military  System. — The  army,  like  the  government,  was 
based  upon  democratic  principles.  Every  man  between  the 


176  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

ages  of  twenty  and  sixty  was  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve 
the  state  as  a  soldier.  The  army  consisted  of  three  branches : 
(1)  the  heavy-armed  troops,  armed  with  the  defensive  equip- 
ment, the  shield,  helmet,  breastplate,  and  greaves,  and  the  of- 
fensive weapons,  the  sword  and  spear;  (2)  the  light-armed 
troops,  who  fought  without  the  defensive  armor  with  the 
sword  and  spear,  and  sometimes  with  the  bow  and  arrow ;  and 
(3)  the  cavalry,  which  was  not  much  used  in  Greece,  on  ac- 
count of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country.  The  mili- 
tary organization  was  based  upon  the  "phalanx,"  a  body  of 
from  two  to  four  thousand  men,  made  up  of  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions, each  under  its  own  officers,  and  usually  drawn  up  in 
eight  ranks.  The  Greek  phalanx  was  the  most  effective  mili- 
tary organization  before  the  time  of  the  Eoman  legion. 

The  Financial  System. — The  administration  of  the  public 
finances  was  in  the  hands  of  the  council.  The  expenses  of  the 
state  were  due  chiefly  to  (1)  the  maintenance  of  religion  and 
the  public  games  and  festivals,  (2)  the  payment  for  civil  and 
military  services,  (3)  the  construction  and  repair  of  public 
buildings,  and  (4)  public  bounties  paid  to  poor  citizens,  and 
pensions  to  the  orphans  of  deceased  soldiers.  The  revenues  of 
the  state. were  derived  principally  from  (1)  the  tribute  laid 
upon  the  allied  cities  (p.  170),  (2)  the  rent  of  state  property, 
like  the  silver  mines  at  Laurium,  (3)  duties  on  goods  exported 
and  imported  or  sold  in  the  market,  and  (4)  the  tax  on  resi- 
dent foreigners.  The  state  was  also  accustomed  to  receive  vol- 
untary contributions  from  patriotic  citizens. 

Political  Parties  at  Athens. — The  growth  of  the  Athenian 
democracy,  like  that  of  every  popular  government,  was  markol 
by  the  development  of  parties  and  of  factional  strife.  We  have 
already  seen,  from  very  early  times,  polit  ical  divisions  between 
different  portions  of  the  people, — for  example,  the  Eupatrids 
and  the  common  people;  and  the  men  of  the  Hill,  the  Plain, 
and  the  Shore.  But  from  the  time  of  Clisthenes,  there  had 
come  to  be  two  quite  well-defined  political  parties,  the  demo- 


TILE    ATHENIAN    EMPIRE  177 

cratic  and  the  oligarchical.  The  democratic  party  was  in  favor 
of  the  new  constitution,  with  the  popular  changes  brought 
about  by  Clisthenes,  Ephialtes,  and  Pericles;  it  was  eminently 
the  patriotic  party  of  Athens,  opposed  to  foreign  influences, 
whether  Spartan  or  Persian.  The  oligarchical  party,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  opposed  to  the  constitution,  which  had  de- 
prived its  members  of  their  old  exclusive  privileges;  it  was  in 
sympathy  with  the  aristocratic  ideas  of  Sparta,  and  did  not 
hesitate  sometimes  to  take  the  part  of  Persia.  Between  these 
two  extreme  parties,  there  was  what  may  be  called  a  moderate 
party,  less  defined  than  the  others,  which  did  not  oppose  the 
democratic  constitution  so  much  as  it  did  the  policy  of  the 
democratic  leaders.  The  strife  between  these  parties  was 
allayed  for  a  time  by  the  overpowering  influence  of  Pericles, 
only  to  become  more  bitter,  as  we  shall  see,  during  and  after 
the  Peloponnesian  war. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB    REVIEW 

I.  ATHENS  AND  THE  DELIAN  CONFEDERACY/ — The  New  Athens 
under    Themistocles. — Athenian     Supremacy     in    the     ^gean. — 
Formation  of  the  Delian  Confederacy  under  Aristides. — Growth 
of    Imperialism    under    Cimon. — Jealousy    between    Sparta    and 
Athens. 

II.  PERICLES   AND    THE    ATHENIAN   EMPIRE. — Pericles    and    his 
Policy. — The   Building-  of  the   Long  Walls. — Athenian   Attempts 
at    a    Land    Empire. — Completion    of    the    Maritime    Empire. — 
Restoration  and  Death  of  Cimon. — Failure  of  the  Imperial  Policy 
of  Athens. — The  "Years  of  Peace." 

III.  THE  ATHENIAN  CONSTITUTION  UNDER  PERICLES. — Character 
of   the    Athenian    Democracy. — Classes    of   the    Population. — The 
Athenian    Assembly,    or    Ecclesia. — The    Athenian    Council,    or 
Boule. — The  Athenian  Magistrates;  the  Generals. — The  Athenian 
Courts;    the   Dicasteries.— The    Military    System.— The    Financial 
System. — Political  Parties  at  Athens. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Smith,   Wm.,   Ch.   23,   "Rise  and   Growth   of  the   Athenian   Em- 
pire" (10)  .a 
Cox,  History,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Thirty  Years  Truce"   (10). 

1The   figure  in   parenthesis   refers   to   the  number   of   the  topic   in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


178  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

Allcroft,  Athenian  Empire,  Ch.  1,  "Confederacy  of  Delos  and  the 
Foundation  of  the  Athenian  Empire"  (10). 

Oman,  Ch.  22,  "Origin  of  the  Confederacy  of  Delos";  Ch.  23, 
"Building-  of  the  Athenian  Empire";  Ch.  24,  Athens  at  the 
Height  of  Her  Power;  Ch.  25,  "The  Years  of  Peace"  (10). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  10,  "Athens  under  Pericles";  Ch.  11,  "Con- 
stitutional Development  in  Athens";  pp.  145-147  (ethics  of 
Athenian  policy)  (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  Uk.  III.,  Ch.  2,  "Growth  and  Power  of  Athens"; 
Ch.  3,  "The  Years  of  Pericles"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  14,  "Pericles  to  the  Thirty  Years  Peace";  Ch. 
16,  "The  Government,  of  the  City"  (10). 

Grote,  Part  II.,  Ch.  44  (treason  and  death  of  Pausanias);  Ch.  46 
(constitutional  and  judicial  changes  under  Pericles)  (10). 

Abbott,  Pericles,  Ch.  1,  "The  Alcmaeonidae";  Ch.  6,  "The 
Areopagus  and  Ephialtes";  Ch.  16,  "The  Athens  of  Pericles; 
the  Government"  (27). 

Greenidge,  Ch.   6,   "Democracy"   (11). 

Whibley,  Political  Parties,  Ch.  1,  "Athenian  Constitution  and 
Empire"  (11). 

Bury,  pp.  336-342  (Athens's  treatment  of  her  subject  states) 
(10). 

Freeman,  Essay,  "The  Athenian   Democracy"   (3). 

Plutarch,    "Cimon,"    "Pericles"    (26). 

Aristotle's  Constitution,  Chs.  23-27  (Ephialtes  and  Pericles)   (17). 


CHAPTER    XIII 

THE  STRUGGLES  FOR  SUPREMACY  IN  GREECE 
I.     THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  (431-404  B.  c.) 

Causes  Leading  to  the  War. — In  tracing  the  political  growth 
of  Greece  up  to  this  time,  we  have  seen  not  only  certain  ele- 
ments of  greatness,  but  also  certain  elements  of  weakness  in 
the  Greek  character.  We  have  seen  that  while  the  Greeks  pos- 
sessed a  love  of  political  liberty  and  of  local  independence,  they 
seemed  incapable  of  forming  a  single  national  state  based  upon 
their  common  interests.  Only  during  flic  brief  period  of  ilio 
Persian  invasions  had  they  been  able  to  drop  their  local  pride 
sufficiently  to  unite  against  their  common  enemy.  A<  the  dan- 
ger from  Persia  passed  away  they  relapsed  into  a  condition  of 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  179 

strife  and  mutual  jealousy.  During  the  next  seventy  years 
the  Grecian  states  were  continually  at  war  with  one  another, 
trying  to  settle  the  question  as  to  who  should  be,  or  should  not 
be,  supreme.  The  first  struggle  was  an  attempt  to  deprive 
Athens  of  the  supremacy  which  she  now  held  in  the  Hellenic 
world.  The  initial  steps  of  this  struggle  had  already  been 
taken  when  Athens  had  attempted  to  establish  a  land  empire  in 
central  Greece  and  had  been  balked  by  Sparta  and  other 
states  (see  pp.  166, 171) .  This  struggle  was  now  renewed  in  the 
so-called  Peloponnesian  war,  and  continued  with  little  inter- 
ruption for  twenty-seven  years.  We  may  briefly  indicate  the 
remote  causes  of  the  war  as  follows:  (1)  the  strong  spirit  of 
local  independence,  and  lack  of  a  common  feeling  of  patriotism, 
which  marked  the  whole  Greek  people;  (2)  the  opposing  inter- 
ests of  the  Dorian  and  Ionian  races — the  one  being  agricul- 
tural, the  other  commercial;  the  one  favoring  aristocratic,  the 
other  democratic  principles;  the  one  strong  in  their  armies, 
the  other  in  their  fleets;  (3)  the  bitter  jealousy  which  had  long 
been  growing  between  Sparta  as  the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian 
League  and  Athens  as  the  ruler  of  the  Delian  Confederacy. 

The  direct  cause  of  the  war  was  the  interference  of  Athens 
in  the  affairs  of  Corinth,  one  of  the  members  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian League.  Of  all  the  Peloponnesian  states  Corinth  was 
the  one  which  had  sufficient  maritime  interests  to  be  a  commer- 
cial rival  of  Athens.  In  a  quarrel  which  arose  between  Corinth 
and  one  of  her  colonies — Corcy'ra — Athens  thought  that  her 
own  interests  were  endangered,  and  took  the  part  of  Corcyra. 
This  led  Corinth  to  appeal  to  Sparta  for  aid,  on  the  ground 
that  Athens  had  broken  the  Thirty  Years'  Truce  (see  p.  171). 
A  meeting  of  the  Peloponnesian  states  was  called,  and  it  was 
decided  to  uphold  the  cause  of  Corinth  and  to  declare  war* 
against  Athens. 

The  War  Policy  of  Pericles  (431-429  B.  c.).— If  we  compare 
the  respective  forces  of  the  two  leading  states,  we  may  see  the 
reason  of  the  war  policy  adopted  by  Pericles.  The  Athenian 


TSTo.  9. 


180 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  181 

army  could  not  hope  to  defeat  the  superior  land  forces  which 
Sparta  sent  to  invade  Attica;  and  so  the  inhabitants  of  Attica 
were  called  upon  by  Pericles  to  find  a  safe  refuge  within  the 
walls  of  the  city,  while  the  powerful  Athenian  navy  was  sent 
to  harass  and  ravage  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  In  this 
way  the  war  was  conducted  during  the  earlier  years — that  is, 
by  periodical  invasions  of  Attica  by  the  Spartan  army,  and  by 
successive  attacks  upon  the  Peloponnesian  coasts  by  the  Athe- 
nian navy.  In  the  third  year  of  the  war  Pericles  died  (429 
B.  c.),  stricken  down  by  a  terrible  plague  which  broke  out  in 
the  overcrowded  city.  In  the  death  of  Pericles  Athens  lost  her 
greatest  statesman,  at  a  time  when  she  needed*  him  most.*  No 
other  man  whom  she  had  ever  produced  expressed  more  fully 
what  was  best  in  the  Athenian  character;  and  at  this  critical 
moment  Athens  possessed  no  man  able  to  fill  his  place.  After 
his  death,  new  and  less  experienced  leaders  came  forward  to 
guide  the  affairs  of  state.  The  man  who  aspired  to  the  position 
of  Pericles  was  Cleon,  a  coarse  leather-dealer,  a  bold  dema- 
gogue, and  a  vociferous  orator.  Opposed  to  him  was  Nicias 
(nisli'i-as),  a  well-bred  man,  a  conservative  leader,  but  over- 
cautious and  devoid  of  energy. 

Conduct  of  the  War  under  Cleon. — The  direction  of  affairs 
now  fell  to  Cleon,  who  became  the  leader  of  the  war  party. 
We  need  not  attempt  to  follow  all  the  many  details  of  the  war 
during  this  second  stage.  Its  most  important  events  were  the 
following: 

(1)  The  surrender  of  Platsea,  a  city  on  the  borders  of  Boeotia 
and  a  steadfast  ally  of  Athens.    This  city  was  invested  by  the 
Spartans,  and  after  a  prolonged  siege  of  two  years  was  forced 
to  surrender,  and  its  valiant  defenders  were  mercilessly  put  to 
death  (429  B.  c.). 

(2)  The  revolt  of  Mytilene  on  the  island  of  Lesbos,  an  ally 
of  Athens.    This  revolt  was  excited  by  the  oligarchical  party 
of  Mytilene ;  it  was  finally  put  down  by  Athens  after  a  severe 
struggle;  the  walls  of  the  city  were  dismantled;  a  thousand 


182  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

of  its  inhabitants  were  put  to  death,  and  its  lands  were  allotted 
to  Athenian  citizens  (427  B.  c.). 

(3)  The  sedition  at  Corcyra.  This  was  also  instigated  by 
an  oligarchical  party,  and  was  aided  by  Sparta;  it  was  marked 
by  the  most  bitter  and  deadly  strife  be- 
tween the  factions,  but  was  finally  sup- 
pressed by  Athens,  and  the  oligarchical 
party  there  was  exterminated. 

(4)  The  capture  of  Sphacte'ria  and  a 
beleaguered  army  of  Spartans.  Sphacteria 
was  an  island  on  the  western  coast  of  Mes- 
senia.  The  neighboring  height  of  Pylos 
had  been  taken  by  the  Athenian  general, 
SPHACTEBIA  Demos'thenes,  in  one  of  his  naval  expedi- 
tions along  the  coast.  A  Spartan  army  and  fleet  were  sent  to 
relieve  the  place;  the  fleet  was  destroyed  in  the  bay,  and  the 
army  was  entrapped  on  the  island.  After  some  delay,  the  be- 
leaguered Spartan  soldiers — numbering  about  three  hundred- 
were  captured  by  Cleon,  who  had  boasted  in  the  assembly  that 
he  could  perform  this  feat  in  twenty  days — which  he  in  fact 
accomplished,  with  the  aid  of  Demosthenes. 

(5)  The  campaign  of  Bras'idas  in  Chalcidice.  Brasidas 
was  the  most  able  of  the  Spartan  generals.  As  the  war  had 
thus  far  been  favorable  to  Athens,  he  conceived  the  brilliant 
idea  of  weakening  Athens  by  striking  her  allies  in  the  north 
from  whom  she  derived  her  supplies.  This  plan  was  carried 
sput  in  a  successful  campaign,  and  Athens  lost  most  of  her 
Chalcid'ian  allies.  While  Brasidas  was  in  the  north,  Athens 
tried  to  get  possession  of  Boeotia,  but  was  defeated  in  a  battle 
at  De'lium  (424  B.  c.).  After  a  year's  truce,  Cleon  determined 
to  continue  the  war  in  Chalcid'ice,  but  suffered  a  severe  defeat 
in  a  battle  at  Amphip'olis  (422  B.  c.),  in  which  both  generals, 
Brasidas  and  Cleon,  were  killed. 

The  Peace  of  Nicias,  and  its  Failure. — With  the  death  of 
Cleon,  who  was   the  war  leader,   Nicias   became  the  lead- 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  183 

ing  man  at  Athens.  Always  opposed  to  the  war,  he  now 
negotiated  with  Sparta  the  treaty  of  peace  which  bears  his 
name  (421  B.  c.).  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty  each  party  agreed 
to  restore  the  acquisitions  made  during  the  war — Sparta  to 
give  up  Amphipolis  and  the  other  Chalcidian  towns,  and  Ath- 
ens to  give  up  Pylos  and  the  captives  taken  at  Sphacteria.  This 
peace  was  to  last  for  fifty  years;  but  it  proved  futile,  and  was 
followed  by  new  combinations  and  intrigues  among  the  dif- 
ferent states.  The  failure  of  the  Peace  of  Nicias  was  due 
chiefly  to  the  refusal  of  the  allies  of  Sparta  to  respect  it,  on 
the  ground  that  they  had  not  been  consulted  in  making  it. 

Alcibiades  and  the  Sicilian  Expedition. — While  the  conser- 
vative and  feeble  Nicias  was  trying  to  maintain  peace,  there 
appeared  a  new  and  resolute  war  leader  in  the  person  of  Alcibi'- 
ades — one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  ac- 
complished, yet  selfish,  cunning,  and  un- 
scrupulous characters  that  Athens  ever  pro- 
duced. Under  his  influence  the  Athenians 
were  led  to  join  the  disaffected  allies  of 
Sparta  and  to  invade  the  Peloponnesus, 
where  they  suffered  a  defeat  at  Mantine'a 
(418  B.  c.).  Failing  in  this  undertaking, 
Alcibiades  now  induced  the  Athenians 
to  conquer  Melos,  simply  because  this 
was  the  only  important  island  of  the  ^Egean  not  included  in 
the  Athenian  empire;  the  island  was  besieged  and  subdued,  and 
the  inhabitants  were  either  slaughtered  or  enslaved. 

But  the  most  dazzling  scheme  of  Alcibiades  was  the  proposal 
to  conquer  Sicily.  Trouble  between  two  of  the  Sicilian  towns 
afforded  a  pretext  for  this  undertaking.  Influenced  by  the  al- 
luring words  of  the  new  war  chief,  the  Athenians  fitted  out  an 
immense  fleet,  which  sailed  to  Syracuse  (415  B.  c.),  under  the 
command  of  Alcibiades  himself,  together  with  Nicias  and  a 
third  general,  Lam'achus.  No  sooner  had  they  reached  the 
shores  of  Sicily  than  an  order  came  from  Athens  command- 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 11 


184 


THE    GREEK   WORLD 


ing  Alcibiades  to  return  to  the  city  to  answer  a  charge  of 
sacrilege.  But  Alcibiades,  fearing  to  face  his  accusers,  now 
fled  to  Sparta  and  became  the  open  enemy  of  Athens.  Nicias, 
with  his  remaining  colleague  Lamachus,  proceeded  to  invest 
the  city  of  Syracuse.  He  landed  on  the  north  and  rear  of  the 
city,  stormed  the  heights  of  Epip'olaB,  captured  a  strong  posi- 
tion, encircled  it  with  a  fortification,  and  extended  his  siege 
lines  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  city.  This  was  done  in  the 

face  of  the  Syracusans, 
who  had  thrown  up  two 
cross  walls  to  resist  him. 
Although  Lamachus  was 
killed,  this  first  stage  of 
the  war  seemed  successful 
to  the  Athenians. 

Acting  under  the  ad- 
vice of  Alcibiades,  the 
Spartans  now  determined 
to  send  strong  reenforce- 
ments  to  the  aid  of  Syra- 
cuse, and  also  to  invade 
Attica  and,  by  seizing  the 
town  of  Decele'a,  to 

SYRACUSE  AND  VICINITY  threaten    Athens    at    her 

very  walls.  They  sent  to 
Syracuse  their  ablest  gen- 
eral, Gylip'pus,  who  de- 
feated Nicias)  and  prevented  the  further  investment  of  Syra- 
cuse by  erecting  a  third  cross  wall,  which  could  not  be  taken. 
Although  reenforced  by  their  greatest  general,  Demosthenes, 
the  Athenians  were  everywhere  unsuccessful  (413  B.  c.).  Their 
fleet  was  destroyed  in  a  sea  fight  in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse. 
Their  army  was  destroyed  in  a  desperate  attempt  to  retreat 
by  land.  With  their  fleet  and  army  lost  and  their  generals, 
Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  condemned  to  death,  this  expedition 


a,  Athenian  camp ;  6,  c,  first  two  cross 
walls,  which  the  Syracusans  lost ;  d, 
third  cross  wall,  which  the  Syracus- 
ans held 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  185 

proved  the  greatest  disaster  that  had  ever  befallen  the  Athe- 
nian state. 

The  Reappearance  of  Persia. — One  of  the  effects  of  the 
Sicilian  disaster  was  to  bring  Persia  once  more  upon  the  scene 
of  war.  It  was  for  the  interest  of  Persia,  as  well  as  of  Sparta, 
to  encourage  the  revolt  of  the  Athenian  allies  on  the  Asiatic 
coast.  These  two  powers  were  thus  induced  to  act  together  for 
the  weakening  of  the  Athenian  empire,  and  the  war  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Alcibiades,  who  had 
favored  the  alliance  between  Sparta  and  Persia,  now  turned 
traitor  to  Sparta  and  took  up  his  residence  with  the  Persian 
satrap  at  Sardis.  The  great  ambition  of  Alcibiades,  from  this 
time,  was  to  secure  his  own  restoration  to  power  at  Athens. 
While  apparently  favoring  Persia,  he  was  also  trying  to  gain 
the  good  will  of  the  Athenians  by  aiding  their  cause.  He 
therefore  induced  the  Persian  governor  no  longer  to  aid  Sparta, 
arguing  that  Persia  would  be  the  gainer  if  both  Sparta  and 
Athens  were  worn  out  by  warring  upon  each  other. 

The  "Four  Hundred "  at  Athens.— The  chief  obstacle  to  the 
ambition  of  Alcibiades  was  the  present  government  of  Athens, 
which  had  condemned  him  to  death.  His  return  could  evi- 
dently be  accomplished  only  by  a  revolution  at  Athens.  With 
the  aid  of  the  oligarchical  faction  this  change  was  effected.  All 
power  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  council  of  four  hundred, 
which  was  constituted  in  an  arbitrary  way  and  which  ruled 
in  a  despotic  manner.  The  officers  of  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the 
^Egean  Sea  protested  against  the  revolution,  and  claimed 
themselves  to  represent  the  legal  government  at  Athens.  They 
prepared  to  carry  on  the  war  and  hoped  with  the  aid  of  Alci- 
biades to  win  Persia  to  their  side.  They  deposed  those  of  their 
own  number  who  favored  the  revolution;  and  the  democracy 
at  Athens  overthrew  the  Four  Hundred  and  restored  the  old 
constitution. 

The  Last  Years  of  the  War  (411-404  B.  c.).— Having  placed 
Alcibiades  in  command  of  the  fleet,  the  Athenians  gained  some 


186  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

notable  victories.  The  Peloponnesian  fleet,  now  operating  in 
the  Propontis,  was  destroyed  near  Cyz'icus,  and  Chalce'don  and 
Byzantium  on  the  Bosphorus  were  taken.  But  on  an  unfor- 
tunate day,  during  the  temporary  absence  of  Alcibiades,  the 
Athenian  fleet  was  defeated  by  the  new  Spartan  admiral 
Lysan'der.  For  this  failure,  the  Athenians  deposed  Alcibiades 
from  his  command,  and  he  retired  in  disgrace  to  his  own  castle 
on  the  Hellespont.  It  required  two  more  battles  to  finish  the  war. 
One  of  these  was  fought  (406  B.  c.)  near  the  small  islands  of 
Arginu'sse,  between  Lesbos  and  the  mainland,  where  the  Athe- 
nians gained  a  victory.  But  this  victory  proved  a  disgrace  to 
Athens;  for  she  condemned  to  death  the  generals  who  had 
won  it,  on  the  ground  that  they  failed  to  rescue  their  ship- 
wrecked comrades — a  thing  which,  under  the  circumstances, 
was  doubtless  impossible.  The  last  battle  was  fought  (405 
B.  c.)  in  the  Hellespont  near  the  mouth  of  a  little  river  called 
^Egospot'ami  ("  Goat's  Streams  ").  A  new  Spartan  fleet  had 
been  built  with  the  aid  of  Persian  gold  furnished  by  the 
younger  Cyrus,  the  new  Persian  governor  in  Asia  Minor.  With 
this  new  armament  Lysander  captured  the  entire  Athenian 
fleet;  and  this  event  destroyed  the  maritime  power  of  Athens. 
Lysander  followed  up  his  victory  by  reducing  the  cities  on  the 
Hellespont  and  Bosphorus.  The  allies  fell  away,  and  nothing 
was  now  left  for  Sparta  but  to  reduce  the  city  of  Athens  itself. 
The  Fall  of  Athens  (404  B.  c.). — In  a  short  time  Lysander 
sailed  into  the  Saronic  Gulf  and  blockaded  the  Piraeus:  and 
the  Spartan  army  came  down  from  Decelea  and  encamped  be- 
fore the  walls  of  the  city.  Without  money,  ships,  allies,  or 
food  supply,  Athens  refused  to  surrender.  It  was  only  famine 
and  starvation  that  brought  the  city  to  terms.  Corinth  and 
Thebes  demanded  that  the  city  be  totally  destroyed.  But 
Sparta  refused  to  destroy  a  city  that  had  done  so  much  for 
Greece  in  the  past.  Athens  was,  however,  required  to  destroy 
the  Long  Walls  and  the  fortifications  of  the  Piraus,  ;m<l  l<> 
become  a  subject  ally  of  Sparta.  Accepting  these  conditions, 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  187 

Athens  opened  her  gates  to  the  enemy,  and  the  Athenian  em- 
pire was  no  more. 

Thus  ended  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  had  lasted  for 
twenty-seven  years,  which  had  desolated  nearly  every  part  of 
the  Greek  world,  and  which,  in  spite  of  the  courage  displayed, 
had  revealed  some  of  the  weakest  and  worst  phases  of  the 
Greek  character — political  jealousy,  local  self-interest,  deceit, 
and  cruelty. 

II.     THE  SUPREMACY  OF  SPARTA 

The  Policy  of  Sparta  in  Greece. — Sparta  now  succeeded  for 
a  time  to  the  empire  which  Athens  was  compelled  to  give  up. 
The  cities  of  Greece  had  been  called  upon  to  revolt  against 
Athens  in  order  to  obtain  their  liberties.  But  they  soon  found 
that  the  tyranny  of  Athens  was  light  compared  with  the  despo- 
tism of  Sparta.  As  Sparta  was  the  patron  of  oligarchy,  she 
compelled  the  cities  to  give  up  their  democratic  governments. 
A  military  governor,  called  a  "  harmost,"  was  placed  over  most 
of  them;  and  whatever  civil  authority  there  was  to  be  exercised, 
was  placed  in  a  board  of  ten  persons, «  called  a  "  decarchy." 
Under  such  a  government  the  property  and  lives  of  the  people 
could  not  be  safe.  The  imperial  policy  of  Sparta  was  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  influence  of  Lysander,  who,  on  account 
of  his  recent  victories,  was  now  the  leading  man  in  the  Spartan 
state. 

In  Athens  there  was  established  a  board  of  thirty  oligarchs 
—who  have  received  the  name  of  the  "  Thirty  Tyrants  "  (404- 
403  B.  c.).  Under  their  leader,  Crit'ias,  their  rule  was  harsh 
and  oppressive  and  resulted  in  anarchy  and  a  reign  of  terror. 
Citizens  were  put  to  death,  and  property  was  confiscated  with- 
out mercy.  It  was  only  by  a  popular  revolution  led  by  the 
patriot  Thrasybu'lus  that  the  Thirty  were  deposed  and  a 
democratic  form  of  government  reestablished.  This  was  suf- 
ficient to  show  that  the  imperial  rule  of  Sparta  might  arouse 
effective  opposition  in  other  cities  also. 


188 


THE   GREEK    WORLD 


Persia  and  the  " March  of  the  Ten  Thousand"  (401-400 
B.  c.). — While  Sparta  was  trying  to  establish  her  authority 
over  the  cities  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  her  ally,  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  the  Persian  governor  of  Asia  Minor,  aspired  to  place 
himself  on  the  Persian  throne  in  place  of  his  brother,  Arta- 
xerx'es.  He  enlisted  in  his  service  about  ten  or  twelve  thousand 
Asiatic  Greeks,  besides  a  large  number  of  native  troops,  and 
with  these  pushed  his  way  through  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia  toward  the  Persian  capital  at  Susa.  He  met 


MARCH  OF  THE  TEN  THOUSAND 

Artaxerxes  in  battle  at  Cunax'a,  near  Babylon.  The  Greek, 
forces  defeated  the  great  army  of  the  king;  but  Cyrus  was 
killed,  and  the  other  leaders  were  soon  entrapped  and  put  to 
death.  The  Greeks  chose  new  leaders,  chief  among  whom  was 
Xen'ophon.  They  then  retreated  up  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 
River,  harassed  by  the  Persian  army,  through  the  snows  of 
Armenia,  suffering  from  cold  and  hunger,  and  finally  along 
the  shores  of  the  Euxine  to  the  friendly  city  of  Chalcedon  and 
so  to  the  yEgean  Sea.  This  famous  "  March  of  the  Ten 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  189 

Thousand/'  described  by  Xenophon  in  his  "  Anab'asis,"  re- 
vealed the  weakness  of  the  Persian  empire  and  the  superior- 
ity of  the  Greek  soldiers,  and  led  directly  to  a  conflict  between 
Persia  and  Sparta. 

War  between  Persia  and  Sparta  (399-394  B.  c.).— The  rebel- 
lious attempt  of  Cyrus,  assisted  as  it  was  by  Greeks,  aroused 
the  wrath  of  the  Persian  king.  He  therefore  appointed  his 
faithful  general,  Tissapher'nes,  as  governor  of  Asia  Minor, 
with  orders  to  reduce  all  the  Grecian  cities  on  the  coast. 
Sparta  now  regarded  herself  as  the  protector  of  the  Greeks, 
and  answered  their  call  for  help.  The  war  against  Persia 
which  followed  was  carried  on  for  six  years,  at  first  under 
inferior  generals,  but  finally  under  the  Spartan  king  Agesi- 
la'us.  This  able  commander  defeated  Tissaphernes,  recovered 
the  Asiatic  cities,  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country, 
and  threaten^  to  overthrow  the  empire  itself.  To  relieve  his 
empire  from  the  presence  of  the  Spartan  army,  the  Persian 
monarch  sent  an  emissary  to  Greece  with  bags  of  gold  to  stir 
up  a  revolt  among  the  subjects  of  Sparta  in  Europe.  The 
dangers  at  home  compelled  the  Spartans  to  recall  Agesilaus 
from  Asia,  and  the  conquest  of  Persia  was  delayed  for  more 
than  half  a  century. 

The  Corinthian  War;  Peace  of  Antalcidas  (395-387  B.  c.).— 
When  Agesilaus  reached  Sparta,  he  found  a  large  part  of 
Greece  united  in  an  attempt  to  throw  off  the  Spartan  yoke. 
Thebes,  Corinth,  Athens,  and  Argos  had  formed  a  league  for 
the  liberation  of  the  Hellenic  states.  The  war  which  ensued  is 
called  the  "  Corinthian  war,"  because  it  was  waged  to  a  great 
extent  in  the  vicinity  of  the  isthmus.  Besides  many  engage- 
ments fought  on  land,  a  decisive  naval  battle  was  fought  near 
Cnidus  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Asia  Minor  (394  B.  c.).  In 
this  battle  the  Greek  allies,  under  the  Athenian  general  Conon, 
assisted  by  the  Persians,  practically  destroyed  the  maritime 
power  of  Sparta.  Conon  freed  the  cities  on  the  Asiatic  coasts 
from  the  Spartan  power,  and  then  sailed  to  Athens.  Under  his 


190  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

direction,  the  fortifications  of  the  Piraeus  and  the  Long  Walls, 
which  had  been  razed  after  the  Peloponnesian  war,  were  re- 
built. The  stress  of  the  war  was  so  great  that  Sparta  appealed 
to  Persia  to  act  as  arbiter  in  the  affairs  of  Greece;  and  this 
resulted  in  the  so-called  Peace  of  Antal'cidas  (387  B.  c.).  By 
this  peace  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  were  once  more  given  up  to 
the  Persian  king;  the  islands  of  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros 
were  given  to  Athens;  and  all  the  cities  of  Greece  proper  were 
henceforth  to  be  "  free  and  independent." 

Further  Aggressions  of  Sparta  (387-379  B.  c.). — It  is  true 
that  Sparta  had  by  the  late  war  lost  her  maritime  power  and 
her  control  of  the  Asiatic  cities.  But  still,  by  the  terms  of 
the  Peace  of  Antalcidas,  the  bonds  which  had  united  her  ene- 
mies were  broken;  and  she  was  now  free  to  deal  with  them 
separately.  She  claimed  the  right  to  carry  into  execution  the 
terms  of  the*  peace,  and  made  her  despotic  influence  felt  every- 
where. To  offset  the  power  of  Thebes  in  Bceotia,  Sparta 
caused  the  city  of  Plataea  to  be  rebuilt.  To  weaken  her  ene- 
mies in  the  Peloponnesus,  she  razed  the  walls  of  Mantinea,  the 
chief  city  of  Arcadia.  In  order  to  prevent  a  rival  power  from 
growing  up  outside  of  Greece,  she  waged  the  so-called  "  Olyn'- 
thiac  war  "  (382-379  B.  c.),  which  broke  up  the  confederacy  in 
Chalcidice  newly  formed  by  a  union  of  the  Greek  and  Mace- 
donian cities  under  the  headship  of  Olynthus.  For  fear  that 
Thebes  might  rise  against  her  while  her  armies  were  engaged 
in  Chalcidice,  Sparta  seized  the  Theban  citadel,  the  Cadinea, 
and  placed  within  it  a  Spartan  garrison.  This  most  arrogant 
piece  of  aggression  led  to  the  uprising  of  Thebes  with  other 
states,  and  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Spartan  supremacy. 

III.    THE  ATTEMPTED  SUPREMACY  OF  THEBES 

The  Liberation  of  Thebes  (379  B.  c.). — The  story  of  the 
revolution  which  resulted  in  freeing  Thebes  and  the  rest 
of  Greece  from  Spartan  domination,  centers  about  the  names 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY 


191 


Gulf  of  £orin 


of  two  great  Theban  patriots — Pelop'idas  and  Epaminon'- 
das.  Pelopidas  was  a  Theban  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Ath- 
ens. With  a  band  of  companions  he  entered  his  native  city 
in  disguise,  killed  the 
oligarchic  leaders,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  peo- 
ple forced  the  Spartan 
garrison  to  withdraw 
from  the  citadel.  Thebes 
was  thus  made  free. 
Under  the  guidance  of 
Epaminondas  the  other 
cities  of  Bceotia  gained  BCEOTIA 

their  independence,  and  formed  a  new  Boeotian  confederacy  to 
withstand  the  power  of  Sparta.  We  shall  now  see  the  attempt 
of  Thebes  to  displace  Sparta  as  leader  of  the  Greek  states — 
resulting  in  her  temporary  success  and  her  final  failure. 

The  New  Confederacy  of  Athens  (37?  B.  c.).— Athens  took 
courage  from  the  success  of  Thebes,  and  gathered  together 
many  of  her  old  allies  in  a  new  Athenian  confederacy.  She 
built  a  new  navy  and  regained  something  of  her  old  maritime 
power.  She  at  first  aided  Thebes  in  resisting  Sparta;  and 
then,  envious  of  the  growing  power  of  Thebes,  she  formed  a 
treaty  with  Sparta. .  In  the  midst  of  these  jealous  intrigues 
and  the  attending  conflicts,  Athens  proposed  that  a  general 
conference  be  held  at  Sparta  for  the  pacification  of  Greece. 
It  was  there  proposed  that  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas  should  be 
renewed — that  all  states  should  remain  free  and  independent. 
Athens  and  Thebes  wished  this  to  mean  that  all  cities  should 
be  free  to  form  alliances  if  they  chose,  and  thus  to  preserve 
their  newly  formed  leagues.  But  Sparta  refused  to  accept  this 
meaning,  although  s^e  wished  still  to  retain  her  hold  upon  her 
own  allies.  The  treaty  was  hence  signed  without  Sparta. 
While  Athens  had  been  able  to  recover  some  of  her  influence, 
Thebes  and  Sparta  were  now  the  great  rival  powers  of  Greece. 


192  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

Overthrow  of  the  Spartan  Power;  Battle  of  Leuctra  (371 
B>  c.) . — Sparta  was  now  alarmed  at  the  rising  power  of  Thebes. 
She  therefore  sent  an  army  into  Bceotia  to  destroy  the  newly 
t  _  t  formed  confederacy,  but  was  defeated 

in  the  memorable  battle  of  Leuctra. 
The  ruling  spirit  in  Bceotia  was 
Epaminondas,  the  great  Theban  pa- 
triot, whose  name  is  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  among  Grecian  states- 
men and  generals.  To  him  is  due  the 
new  arrangement  of  the  Grecian  pha- 
BATTI37i°B  LCEUCTRA'  lanx  which  won  the  battle  of  Leuctra. 
He  seems  to  have  discovered  one  of 

the  great  principles  of  successful  warfare — that  is,  to  be 
stronger  than  the  enemy  at  the  point  of  contact.  The  old 
Greek  phalanx  was  arranged  in  lines  eight  men  deep.  The 
Spartan  army  was  so  formed  at  Leuctra.  Epaminondas  also 
arranged  the  main  part  of  his  line  in  the  same  way.  But  on 
his  left  wing,  which  he  intended  to  be  the  point  of  contact,  he 
arranged  the  phalanx  in  the  form  of  an  irresistible  column  fifty 
men  deep-,  guarded  on  the  extreme  left  by  a  body  of  cav- 
alry. In  this  way  he  crushed  the  Spartan  right  wing;  and  the 
rest  of  his  army  was  pushed  forward  to  complete  the  victory. 
The  battle  of  Leuctra  had  two  important  ejfects:  first,  it  intro- 
duced a  new  feature  into  ancient  warfare,  which  was  afterward 
employed  by  the  Macedonians;  secondly,  it  overthrew  the 
Spartan  power  and  insured  for  the  time  being  the  ascendency 
of  Thebes. 

Temporary  Supremacy  of  Thebes  (371-362  B.  c.).— The 
policy  of  Epaminondas  was  to  make  Thebes  the  supreme  power 
in  Greece.  He  completely  alienated  Athens  by  attempting  to 
establish  the  Theban  power  over  the  Athenian  allies;  and  he 
even  called  upon  Persia  to  aid  him  in  his  purpose.  To  extend 
Theban  influence  into  the  Peloponnesus,  Epaminondas  invaded 
this  territory,  and  delivered  the  people  from  Spartan  control. 


STRUGGLES    FOR   SUPREMACY  193 

In  Arcadia,  he  helped  the  city  of  Mantinea  to  rebuild  its  pros- 
trate walls,  and  gathered  the  Arcadian  towns  into  an  inde- 
pendent union,  with  the  new  city  of  Megalop'olis  as  their 
capital.  In  Messenia  he  rescued  the  population  from  their  long 
serfdom,  and  built  for  them  a  new  city,  Messe'ne.  Sparta,  fear- 
ing for  her  safety,  appealed  to  Athens  for  assistance.  Athens 
accordingly  sent  an  army  into  the  Peloponnesus  to  prevent  the 
further  encroachments  of  Thebes. 

While  Thebes  was  thus  extending  her  power  to  the  south 
under  Epaminondas,  she  was  also  extending  her  power  to  the 
north  under  Pelopidas.  She  brought  Thessaly  under  her  au- 
thority, and  even  established  influential  relations  with  Mace- 
donia. It  was  not  long  before  troubles  arose  again  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  Epaminondas  again  invaded  the  country  and 
met  the  Spartans  and  their  allies  at  Mantinea  (362  B.  c.), 
where  he  gained  a  victory;  but  at  this  battle  Epaminondas  was 
killed.  As  the  Thebans,  without  their  leader,  were  unable  to 
follow  up  their  victory,  peace  was  established.  With  the  de- 
cline of  the  Theban  power,  Athens  was  once  more  regarded  as 
the  leading  city  of  Greece. 

Failure  of  the  Grecian  State  System, — The  supremacy  of 
Thebes  had  failed  to  create  a  national  state  for  Greece,  just  as 
the  supremacy  of  Sparta  and  that  of  Athens  had  failed  before. 
The  Greeks  had,  it  is  true,  been  able  to  develop  a  city  state 
with  local  self-government,  far  in  advance  of  the  Oriental  sys- 
tem of  government.  But  they  did  not  possess  the  capacity  to 
organize  their  cities  into  a  single  state,  based  upon  their  com- 
mon nationality.  Their  various  leagues  failed,  because  under 
the  predominance  of  one  city  the  rights  of  the  others  were 
disregarded.  Athens  had  failed  to  respect  the  equal  rights  of 
her  allies.  Sparta  had  ruled  with  despotic  authority  over  her 
subjects.  With  all  their  love  of  liberty  springing  from  their 
own  self-interest,  the  Greeks  failed  to  recognize  that  other  es- 
sential principle  of  good  government,  the  respect  for  a  higher 
law  based  upon  the  common  welfare. 


194 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


IV.    THE  SUPREMACY  or  SYRACUSE  IN  SICILY 

Parallel  History  of  Sicily  and  Greece. — In  tracing  the  gen- 
eral course  of  Greek  history,  we  have  seen  the  growth  of  a 
number  of  city  states,  which  were  agitated  by  political  revolu- 
tion, and  in  which  tyranny,  oligarchy,  and  democracy  were 
contending  for  mastery.  We  have  also  seen  Greece,  under  the 
leadership  of  Athens,  delivered  from  the  invasion  of  Persia. 
We  have,  moreover,  seen  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  one 
city  to  lift  itself  into  a  position  of  supremacy  over  the  others. 
There  is  a  general  similarity  between  these  movements  in 
Greece  proper  and  those  in  western  Hellas.  In  Sicily  there 
was  a  similar  movement  in  the  development  of  a  large  number 
of  cities  disturbed  by  political  revolution;  a  similar  conflict 
against  a  foreign  enemy;  and  a  similar  tendency  toward  su- 
premacy on  the  part  of  one  city.  But  the  predominant  city 
in  Sicily  was  not  Athens  or  Sparta  or  Thebes,  but  Syracuse; 
and,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  157),  the  foreign  enemy  of  Sicily  was 
not  Persia,  but  Carthage. 

Dionysius  the  Elder,  and  the  Younger. — A  few  years  after 
the  destruction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  at  Syracuse,  the  Cartha- 
ginians made  a  new  and  more  vigorous  attempt  to  subdue  the 

island.  They  cap- 
tured the  cities  of 
Selinus,  Himera  (409 
B.  c.),  and  Agrigen- 
tum  (406  B.  c.).  In 
their  extremity  the 
Syracusans  chose 
Dionys'ius  the  Elder 
as  their  leader  in 
war.  and  from  this 


OF   DlONYSIUS,    379   B.   C. 

tyrant.     He  was  a  man  of  varied  virtues  and  rices,  <•!'  unusual 
clemency  to  a  vanquished  foe,  and  of  unwonted  cruelty  to  his 


STRUGGLES  FOR  SUPREMACY          195 

own  subjects.  His  great  achievement  was  the  driving  back  of 
the  Carthaginians  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  island,  and 
the  defense  of  Syracuse  by  an  enlarged  fortification,  which 
took  in  the  heights  of  Epipolae  (see  map,  p.  184).  He  also 
brought  under  his  control  many  of  the  cities  of  Sicily,  and 
then  extended  his  Syracusan  empire,  as  shown  by  the  map 
(p.  194),  to  southern  Italy,  and  even  northwestern  Greece. 
He  adorned  Syracuse  with  splendid  buildings  and  works  of 
art,  and  made  it  the  home  of  noted  men;  so  that  it  vied  with 
Athens  as  the  most  cultivated  city  of  the  Greek  world.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Dionysius  the  Younger,  who  had  none 
of  the  remarkable  abilities  of  his  father.  Under  his  rule,  the 
city  rapidly  fell  into  discord  and  anarchy,  from  which  it  was 
rescued  by  Timoleon. 

Timoleon  the  Liberator. — Suffering  under  the  weak  rule  of 
the  Younger  Dionysius  and  threatened  again  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, Syracuse  appealed  to  the  mother  city  of  Corinth  for 
help.  Corinth  fitted  out  a  small  expedition,  and  appointed 
Timoleon,  one  of  her  citizens,  as  its  leader.  This  commander 
took  possession  of  the  citadel  of  Syracuse.  Then  advancing 
against  the  Carthaginians,  he  defeated  them  in  a  decisive  bat- 
tle. There  were  other  cities  of  Sicily  which  were  ruled  by 
tyrants.  These  tyrants  he  expelled,  and  in  these  cities,  as  in 
Syracuse,  he  erected  democratic  governments.  With  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Syracusan  tyrants,  the  cities  of  Magna  Graecia 
also  recovered  their  independence.  Thus  Timoleon  became  the 
true  liberator  of  western  Hellas.  When  he  had  accomplished 
his  great  mission,  he  laid  down  his  power  and  retired  to  private 
life.  Sicily  remained  a  flourishing  seat  of  Grecian  culture, 
but  in  its  political  life  the  island  soon  relapsed  into  the  dis- 
turbed condition  which  marked  the  rest  of  the  Greek  world. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  PELOPONNESTAN  WAR. — Causes  Leading-  to  the  War. — 
The  War  Policy  of  Pericles. — Conduct  of  the  War  under  Cleon. — 
The  Peace  of  Nicias,  and  its  Failure. — Alcibiades  and  the 


196  THE   GREEK   WORLD 

Sicilian  Expedition. — The  Reappearance  of  Persia. — The  "Four 
Hundred"  at  Athens.— The  Last  Years  of  the  War.— The  Fall 
of  Athens. 

II.  THE    SUPREMACY    OF    SPARTA. — The    Policy    of    Sparta    in 
Greece. — Persia   and   the   "March   of   the   Ten   Thousand". — War 
between    Sparta    and    Persia. — The    Corinthian    War;    Peace    of 
Antalcidas. — Further  Aggressions  of  Sparta. 

III.  THE  ATTEMPTED  SUPREMACY  OF  THEBES. — The  Liberation 
of  Thebes. — The  New  Confederacy  of  Athens. — Overthrow  of  the 
Spartan   Power;    Battle   of  Leuctra. — Temporary   Supremacy   of 
Thebes. — Failure  of  the  Grecian  State  System. 

IV.  THE  SUPREMACY  OF  SYRACUSE  IN  SICILY. — Parallel  History 
of  Sicily  and  Greece. — Dionysius  the  Elder,  and  the  Younger. — 
Timoleon  the  Liberator. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Smith,  Wm.,   Ch.  25,   "Causes   of  the   Peloponnesian   War";    Ch. 

40,  "The  Supremacy  of  Thebes"   (10).1 
Oman,   Ch.    26,    "Outbreak    of   the   Peloponnesian    War    and    its 

Causes";  Ch.  32,  "Expedition  of  the  Athenians  to  Syracuse"; 

Ch.   37,  "The  Greeks  of  the  West"    (10). 
Bury,  Ch.  11,  "Decline  and  Downfall  of  the  Athenian  Empire"; 

Ch.    15,    "The    Syracusan    Empire    and    the    Struggle    with 

Carthage"  (10). 
Allcroft,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  1,  "Introductory"  (comparison  of  Athens 

and  Sparta);   Ch.  6,  "Brasidas  and  Cleon";    Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  6, 

"Sicilian  Affairs"   (10). 
Curtius,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  5,  "The  Decelean  War";   Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  1, 

"Athens  under  the  Thirty"  (10). 
Sankey,   Ch.   3,   "Athens   under   the   Thirty";    Ch.   9,    "Peace   of 

Antalkidas"   (10). 
Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  21,  "Corcyra,  Potidaea  and  Plataea";  pp.  492- 

497    (rule  of  the  Four  Hundred);    pp.   526534    (rule  of  the 

Thirty);  Vol.  III.,  pp.  8-10  (Epaminondas  and  Thebes);   Ch. 

5,  "The  Arrogance  of  Sparta"   (10). 

Gilbert,  pp.  416-445  (first  and  second  leagues  of  Athens). 
Harper's    Dictionary,    "Exercitus"    (military    formations    among 

the  Greeks)   (11). 
Plutarch,     "Alcibiades,"      "Lysander,"      "Nicias,"      "Agesilaus," 

"Pelopidas,"  "Timoleon,"  "Dion"  (26). 
Thucydides,  Bk.  II.,  Chs.  35-46  (funeral  oration  of  Pericles) ;  Bks. 

VI.,  VII.  (account  of  the  Sicilian  expedition)   (17). 

'The   figure  In  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  In  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

THE  ATTIC  PERIOD  OF  HELLENIC  CULTURE 
I.     ATHENS  AS  THE  CENTER  OF  HELLENIC  ART 

Greek  Politics  and  Hellenic  Culture. — We  have  been  consid- 
ering the  political  life  of  Greece  since  the  time  of  the  Persian 
invasions.  We  have  seen  the  various  Greek  states,  under  the 
leadership  of  Sparta,  uniting  to  repel  a  foreign  enemy.  We 
have  seen  the  rise  and  fall  of  a  maritime  empire  under  the  con- 
trol of  Athens.  And  finally  we  have  seen  the  failure  of  the 
Greek  cities  to  develop  a  true  national  state,  on  account  of 
their  mutual  jealousies  and  their  strong  spirit  of  local  inde- 
pendence. While  the  Greeks  no  doubt  did  a  great  deal  toward 
the  development  of  political  liberty,  of  local  self-government, 
and  of  democratic  institutions,  we  must  be  convinced  that  their 
greatest  importance  in  the  world's  history  does  not  rest  upon 
what  they  accomplished  in  their  political  life.  The  preeminent 
genius  of  the  Greeks  was  shown  not  in  the  sphere  of  politics, 
but  in  the  domain  of  culture — not  in  their  state-building,  but 
in  their  intellectual  and  artistic  achievements.  We  should, 
therefore,  overlook  the  most  essential  qualities  of  the  Greek 
people,  did  we  fail  to  recognize  the  contributions  they  have 
made  to  the  world  in  literature,  in  philosophy,  and  in  art. 

The  Attic  Period,  its  Character  and  Phases. — The  most  re- 
markable progress  in  the  intellectual  life  of  Greece  took  place 
after  the  great  Persian  wars.  It  is  true  that  before  these  wars 
the  Greeks  were  beginning  to  show  a  genius  distinctly  their 
own — in  the  growth  of  their  epic  and  lyric  poetry,  and  in  the 
early  stages  of  a  strictly  Hellenic  art  (see  pp.  129-142).  But 

197 


198  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

this  early  form  of  Greek  culture  sprang  up  outside  of  Greece 
proper,  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  western  Hellas.  The  Persian 
wars  tended  to  smother  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks,  and  to  arouse  the  intellectual  spirit  of  Athens.  This 
period  of  intellectual  activity  which  began  with  the  Persian 
wars  and  extended  to  the  Macedonian  supremacy,  and  in  which 
the  culture  of  Greece  was  centered  in  Athens,  we  may  call  the 
"  Attic  period."  The  culture  of  this  period  was  characterized 
by  those  qualities  which  distinguished  the  Greek  mind  from 
the  Oriental  mind,  and  which  found  their  highest  embodiment 
in  the  men  of  Athens.  During  this  period  we  may  distinguish 
certain  phases  in  the  progress  of  this  Attic  spirit.  It  was  the 
most  creative  and  vigorous  in  the  time  of  the  great  Persian 
wars  and  the  years  just  following  these  wars ;  it  was  the  most 
refined  and  exalted  in  the  age  of  Pericles ;  and  it  was  the  most 
reflective  and  critical  in  the  subsequent  period  of  internal 
strife.  But  through  all  these  phases,  it  preserved  its  essentially 
"  classic "  qualities — simplicity  and  moderation,  symmetry 
and  proportion,  severe  conformity  to  rational  ideals,  contempt 
for  all  that  is  tawdry  and  meretricious.  The  Attic  spirit 
might  perhaps  best  be  characterized  by  the  single  Greek  word 
^Gotppocfvvrj  (sophros'yne) — which  might  be  freely  trans- 
lated, life  under  the  control  of  reason. 

The  City  of  Athens. — Our  chief  interest  in  Greece  must  al- 
ways be  centered  in  Athens,  because  it  was  in  this  renowned  city 
that  the  culture  of  Greece  found  its  highest  expression.  Let  us 
glance  at  a  few  of  its  most  important  topographical  features. 
With  the  Acropolis  as  its  center,  the  limits  of  the  city  had 
been  gradually  widening  from  the  earliest  times.  At  the  time 
of  the  Persian  wars,  the  "old  line"  of  the  city  had  been 
reached.  With  the  building  of  the  new  wall  of  Themistocles, 
the  circumference  of  the  city  was  enlarged  to  five  or  six  miles. 
During  the  times  of  Cimon  and  Pericles  the  city  was  still  fur- 
ther extended  by  the  erection  of  the  Long  Walls  so  as  to  take 
in  the  Piraeus  (p.  1G5).  To  make  the  circuit  of  the  city  walls 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF   HELLENIC    Ct'LTtTRE 


100 


at  this  time  would  require  a  journey  of  perhaps  twenty  miles. 
The  chief  entrance  to  the  city  was  the  Dip'ylon  gate,  to  the 
northwest.  The  city  contained  a  number  of  hills,  the  most 
important  of  which  were  the  following:  (1)  the  Acropolis,  the 
central  pinnacle  of  Athens,  formed  of  limestone  rock  rising 
abruptly  to  the  height  of  two  hundred  feet,  with  a  length  of 
about  a  thousand  feet — upon  or  near  which  were  the  most  im- 


PLAN  OF  ATHENS,  TIME  OF  PERICLES 

portant  buildings  of  the  city;  (2)  the  Pnyx,  to  the  west,  upon 
which  the  assembly,  or  ecclesia,  held  its  meetings;  (3)  the 
Areopagus,  a  little  to  the  north,  where  the  old  council  of  the 
Areopagus  held  its  sessions;  (4)  the  Colo'jius,  still  further  to 
the  north,  upon  which  is  located  the  so-called  These'um,  said 
to  be  to-day  the  best  preserved  temple  of  Greece.  Between  the 
hill  of  Colonus  and  the  Areopagus  was  the  Ag'ora,  the  public 
square  or  market  place,  lined  with  beautiful  trees  and  porticoes, 
and  the  center  of  the  political  and  commercial  life  of  Athens. 

MOREY'S    AXCIENT    HIST.—  12 


200 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


The  whole  city  was  divided  into  certain  districts,  or  wards,  cor- 
responding to  the  "  demes  "  of  Attica.  Beyond  the  city  walls 
to  the  east  was  the  Lyce'um,  and  to  the  northwest  the  Acad- 
emy— both  of  which  were  places  of  resort  and  amusement  for 
the  Athenians.  The  population  of  Athens  at  the  time  of 
Pericles  is  variously  estimated  at  from  120,000  to  190,000, 
including  those  who  were  slaves. 

Athenian  Architecture. — After  the  destruction  of  the  city 
by  the  Persians,  Athens  was  entirely  rebuilt  and  adorned  with 
many  structures  of  great  architectural  beauty.  This  work  was 
begun  by  Thernistocles  and  Cimon,  and  was  carried  on  exten- 
sively by  Pericles  with  the  aid  of  the  tribute  collected  from 
the  ^Egean  cities.  The  greatest  work  of  Pericles  was  the 
adornment  of  the  sacred  height  of  the  Acropolis,  which  became 
the  center,  not  of  defense,  according  to  its  original  purpose, 
but  of  religious  adoration.  Upon  the  foundations  laid  by 
Cimon  (or  perhaps  Themistocles)  Pericles  erected  the  magnif- 
icent temple  of  Athena — the  Par'thenon.  This  was  the  most 
beautiful  specimen  of  classic  architecture:  ami  the  surpass- 
ing superiority  of  the 
Greek  taste  is  evident 
when  this  temple  is 
compared  with  the  old 
temples  of  the  East. 
The  Parthenon  was  of 
moderate  size,  built  of 
Pentelic  marble,  in 
the  Doric  style  iv lined 
by  Attic  taste,  and  of 
PLAN  OF  THE  ACROPOLIS  the  most  exquisite  pro- 

portions. The  next  important  building  on  the  Acropolis  built 
by  Pericles  was  the  Propylas'a,  the  entrance  to  the  sacred  hill. 
In  this  bnildinir  we  s<>e  for  the  first  time  the  combination  of  the 
Doric  and  Ionic  styles,  tlie  outside  of  the  building  being  sup- 
ported by  Doric  columns  and  the  inside  passageway  by  Ionic 


201 


202 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


columns.  The  whole  effect  of  this  great  portal  was  beautiful 
and  imposing.  At  the  time  of  Pericles  the  Propylaea  was  ap- 
proached not  by  a  flight  of  steps,  but  by  inclined  walks  leading 
up  from  the  foot  of  the  hill.  Another  notable  building  of  the 
Acropolis  was  the  Erechthe'um,  built  near  the  site  of  an  old 
temple  destroyed  by  the  Persians.  Its  name  was  derived  from 
that  of  one  of  the  ancient  mythical  kings  of  Athens,  Erech'- 
theus,  whose  worship  became  connected  with  that  of  Poseidon. 
As  this  temple  was  intended  to  cover  different  shrines — that  of 
Athena  and  that  of  Erechtheus-Poseidon — its  plan  was  the 

most  irregular  of  all  the 
temples  of  Greece.  It  is 
supported  by  beautiful 
Ionic  columns;  but  a  small 
porch  on  the  south  of 
the  temple  has  for  its  sup- 
port six  carved  female  fig- 
ures (Caryat'ides)  and 
hence  is  known  as  the 
"  Porch  of  the  Maidens." 
During  this  time  the  ar- 
chitectural styles  em- 
ployed by  the  Athenians 
were  the  Doric  and  the 
Ionic — the  former  being 
regarded  as  typical  of 
masculine  strength  and 
di-niiy.  and  the  latter  of 
feminine  refinement  and 
grace. 

Athenian  Sculpture.— 

It    was    not    until    after 
"DISCOBOLUS"  OF  MYKON 

the    Persian    wars     that 

the  sculpture  of  the  Greeks  bognn  to  lose  its  early  (•rude- 
ness and  to  acquire  more  artistic  qualities.     The  first  great 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE 


203 


sculptor  of  the  Attic  period  was  Myron.  His  best-known 
statue  is  the  "  Discob'olus "  (the  disc-thrower),  which  illus- 
trates not  only  the  important  place 
which  gymnastics  held  in  Greek  life, 
but  also  the  beneficial  effect  of  the 
national  games  upon  the  sculptor's 
art  by  furnishing  him  living  models 
for  his  work.  The  most  renowned  of 
all  the  Greek  sculptors  was  Phid'ias, 
who  assisted  Pericles  in  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  Acropolis.  The  sculp- 
tures of  Phidias  were  inspired  by  a 
high  religious  purpose,  like  that 
which  led  to  the  building  of  the  Par- 
thenon— namely,  the  worship  of  the 
goddess  Athena.  Her  colossal  statue 
in  bronze  was  erected  upon  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Acropolis,  and  her  statue 
in  ivory  and  gold  was  placed  within 
the  Parthenon.  In  trie  eastern  pedi- 
ment *  of  this  temple  was  placed  a 
sculptured  scene  representing  her 
birth  from  the  forehead  of  Zeus ;  and 

in  the  western  pediment  was  another  group  representing 
her  contest  with  Poseidon  for  the  soil  of  Attica.  On  the 
walls  of  the  temple  was  a  remarkable  series  of  reliefs  carved 
in  marble,  representing  the  procession  which  on  her  birthday 
carried  her  robe  through  the  streets  of  Athens  to  her  shrine 
on  the  Acropolis.  This  Parthenon  decoration  contained  a 
vast  variety  of  figures — prancing  horses  held  in  check  by  the 
steady  hands  of  their  riders,  chariots  occupied  by  armed  war- 
riors, beautiful  maidens  and  dignified  magistrates,  a  group  of 
Olympian  deities,  and  many  other  subjects.  The  work  of 
Phidias  was  not  confined  to  Athens.  His  statue  of  Zeus  in 

1  The  "  pediment "  is  the  triangular  space  forming  the  gable  of  the  roof. 


ATHENA  PARTHENOS 


204 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


the  temple  at  Olympia  was  regarded  by  many  as  his  master- 
piece and  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 

After  the  time  of  Phidias  art  became  less  inspired  with 
a  purely  religious  spirit,  and  acquired  more  of  a  human  char- 
acter. To  depict  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  human  form 
seemed  now  the  highest  ideal  of  the  artist.  4This  is  seen  espe- 


PART  OF  THE   PARTHENON  DECORATION 

daily  in  the  work  of  Praxit'eles  of  Athens,  the  most  eminent  of 
Greek  sculptors  after  Phidias.  One  of  the  most  famous  statues 
of  Praxiteles  was  the  Aphrodite  at  Cnidus,  which  was  visrted 
from  all  parts  of  Greece  by  its  admirers.  But  critics  have  been 
disposed  to  give  the  place  of  honor  to  his  Hermes  with  the 
infant  Dionysus,  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  mutilated 
form.  The  Greeks  also  acquired  at  this  time  great  skill  in  the 
making  of  portrait  statues.  This  is  shown  in  the  works  of 
Lysip'-pus  of  Sicyon,  whose  statue  of  the  poet  Soph'ocles  (see 
p.  209)  is  regarded  as  the  finest  ancient  work  of  the  kind. 


ATTIC  PERIOD  OF  HELLENIC  CULTURE 


205 


Athenian  Painting. — It  is  difficult  for  us  to  form  a  very 
clear  idea  of  the  progress  made  in  painting  in  the  Periclean 
age,  because  this  art  is  less  durable  than  that  of  sculpture. 
The  great  painter  of  this  period  was  Polygno'tus.  He 
was  born  in  the  island  of  Thasos,  but  came  to  Athens 
and  is  said  to  have  been  made 
an  Athenian  citizen.  His  most 
famous  works  were  placed  upon 
the  walls  of  temples,  porticoes, 
and  other  public  buildings,  espe- 
cially the  Propylsea.  His  sub- 
jects were  mostly  mythological 
and  historical  scenes.  After  the 
time  of  Pericles  there  was  a 
marked  advance  in  the  method 
of  painting.  Hitherto  colors  had 
been  applied  in  flat  tints  with  no 
gradations  of  light  and  shade; 
and  hence  the  so-called  paintings 
were  more  properly  colored  draw- 
ings. But  colors  were  now 
graded  so  as  to  produce  the  effect 

of  light  and  shade,  which  we  call  chiaroscuro.  This  method 
was  introduced  by  Apollodo'rus  of  Athens,  but  was  improved 
by  the  great  painters  Zeuxis  and  Parrha'sius.  The  realistic 
effect  of  the  new  style  of  painting  is  illustrated  by  the  story 
often  told  of  these  rivals — how  Zeuxis  painted  a  bunch  of 
grapes  that  deceived  the  birds,  and  Parrhasius  a  curtain  that 
deceived  the  rival  painter  himself. 


HERMES  OF  PRAXITELES 


•    II.     THE  THEATER  AND  DRAMATIC  LITERATURE 

The  Theater  of  Dionysus. — One  of -the  chief  centers  of  the 
intellectual  life  of  Athens  was  the  theater.  This  was  a  place 
not  simply  for  amusement,,  but  for  instruction  and  for  moral 


206 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


and  religious  inspiration.  Athens  had  but  one  place  where 
dramatic  performances  were  placed  upon  the  stage — the  thea- 
ter of  Dionysus.  It  was  situated  on  the  southeastern  slope  of 
the  Acropolis,  and  was,  it  is  said,  capable  of  seating  thirty 
thousand  people,  or  the  whole  voting  population  of  Attica. 
The  performances  took  place  in  the  open  air  during  the  fes- 
tivals of  Dionysus,  the  wine  god,  and  consisted  of  tragedies, 


THE  THEATER  OF  DIONYSUS  (Restoration) 

comedies,  satyric  dramas,  and  choral  hymns,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  being  the  works  of  the  great  tragedians.  The 
theater  of  the  Greeks  consisted  of  three  parts,  the  stage,  the 
orchestra,  and  the  auditorium.  The  stage  was  an  elevated 
platform,  upon  which  the  players  performed  their  parts,  and  in 
the  rear  of  which  was  an  architectural  background  used  to  rep- 
resent or  to  suggest  the  locality  where  the  action  was  supposed 
to  take  place.  The  orchestra  was  a  semicircular  space  in  front 
of  the  stage,  set  apart  for  the  "chorus," — this  IMMM^  ;in  essen- 
tial part  of  the  performance,  consisting  of  singingj  dancing, 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE  207 

and  gesticulations  which  were  intended  to  interpret  the  thought 
and  emotions  of  the  play.  The  auditorium  was  the  rising  tiers 
of  seats  which  encircled  the  orchestra  and  were  occupied  by  the 
spectators.  The  central  place  of  the  orchestra  and  chorus  in 
the  Greek  theater  can  hardly  be  understood  except  by  referring 
to  the  origin  of  the  drama  itself. 

Origin  of  the  Greek  Drama.— We  have  seen  that,  before  the 
Persian  wars,  one  of  the  forms  of  lyric  poetry  was  the  hymn, 
or  chorus,  sung  by  a  number  of  voices  at  public  festivals  in 
honor  of  the  gods  (p.  139).  It  was  this  choral  hymn  as  used 
by  Arion  in  the  worship  of  Dionysus  that  became  transformed 
into  the  drama.  The  -words  of  the  old  chorus  were  accom- 
panied by  dancing  and  gesticulations,  and  expressed  in  a  rude 
and  wild  way  the  emotions  supposed  to  be  appropriate  to  the 
worship  of  Dionysus,  the  wine  god.  But  Thespis,  a  lyric  poet 
of  Attica,  introduced  an  actor  who  assumed  different  characters 
and  carried  on  a  sort  of  dialogue  with  the  leader  of  the  chorus; 
and  this  served  to  explain  the  motive  of  the  choral  hymn.  This 
first  form  of  the  drama,  with  the  chorus  and  a  single  actor,  was 
cultivated  by  Phryn'ichus,  who  took  for  his  subjects  events  in 
the  Persian  wars.  His  tragedy  on  the  "  Capture  of  Miletus  " 
melted  his  audience  to  tears;  but  as  it  seemed  to  reproach  the 
Athenians  for  not  aiding  their  kin  beyond  the  sea,  a  fine  was 
imposed  upon  him  and  the  play  was  proscribed.  In  a  later 
tragedy,  however,  he  stirred  the  patriotic  feeling  of  his  audi- 
ence by  depicting  the  effect  which  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Salamis  had  upon  the  Persian  court. 

^Eschylus,  the  Father  of  Tragedy. — The  early  form  of  the 
drama  was  improved  by  ^Es'chylus,  who  was  born  in  Attica 
and  lived  during  the  period  of  the  Persian  wars.  He  intro- 
duced a  second  actor,  so  that  the  dialogue  became  the  prin- 
cipal feature,  while  the  chorus  was  used  chiefly  to  echo  the 
emotions  produced  by  the  play.  The  chorus  still  retained  its 
central  place  in  the  theater,  while  the  actors  were  elevated  to  a 
more  conspicuous  position  on  the  stage.  The  chief  purpose  of 


208 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


the  poet  now  was  not  simply  to  compose  the  lyric  hymn  to  be 
sung  by  the  chorus,  but  to  construct  a  worthy  dialogue  that 
would  depict  great  events  and  stir  the  feelings  of  the  people. 
It  was  ^Eschylus  who  lifted  the  dialogue  to  the  plane  of  gen- 
uine art;  and  on  this  account  he  may  properly  be  called  the 
father  of  Greek  tragedy.  He  was  a  man  inspired  with  patriot- 
ism and  religious  fervor.  He  had  been  present  at  the  battles 
of  Marathon,  Artemisium,  Salamis,  and  Plataea.  In  what  was 
probably  his  earliest  tragedy,  "  The  Persians."  he  followed  his 
predecessor  Ph^nichus  in  picturing  the  effect  of  the  news  of 
Salamis  upon  the  Persian  court.  The  subjects  of  his  later 


2  3 

MASKS  USED  IN  TRAGEDY 

tragedies  were  taken  from  the  heroic  myths,  but  infused  with 
deep  human  feeling  and  religious  sentiment.  His  greatest 
work  was  perhaps  the  "  Prome'theus  Bound,"  in  which  a  god, 
chained  to  a  rock  by  command  of  Zeus,  is  made  to  suffer  for 
good  deeds  done  .to  men. 

Sophocles,  the  Dramatic  Artist. — If  ^Eschylus  represented 
the  patriotic  and  heroic  spirit  born  of  the  Persian  war?,  his 
successor,  Sophocles,  represented  the  finer  artistic  spirit  of  the 
age  of  Pericles. 

He  introduced  the  third  actor  upon  the  stage,  thus  giving 
greater  freedom  to  dramatic  composition.  He  also  gave  less 
prominence  to  the  chorus,  which  he  used  chiefly  to  accompany 
the  dialogue  and  to  give  a  moral  background  to  the  play. 
Moreover,  lie  introduced  less  of  the  heroic  and  superhuman 
element.  ;md  ln-ought  his  diameters  into  closer  relation  to 
human  life.  Sophocles  is  said  to  have  composed  more  than  a 


ATTIC    PEKIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE  209 

hundred  dramas,  of  which  only  seven  have  come  down  to  us. 
The  most  important  of  his  plays  are  perhaps  "  (Edipus  the 
King,"  "  (Edipus  at  Colonus,"  and  the  "Antig'one."  These 
are  all  based  upon  stories  related  of  the  mythical  king  of 
Thebes  and  his  family. 
But  these  stories  are  told 
with  graphic  power,  and 
in  such  a  way  as  to  illus- 
trate the  poet's  idea  of  the 
supremacy  of  fate  and  the 
moral  law,  the  penalty 
awaiting  those  who  disobey 
that  law,  and  the  suffering 
which  must  often  be  en- 
dured even  by  those  who 
strive  to  obey  it.  The 
character  of  Antigone  is 
one  of  the  noblest  in  all 
literature.  She  presents 
the  most  beautiful  exam- 
ple of  filial  devotion  and 
of  feminine  courage,  by 
clinging  to  her  unfortu- 
nate father  in  his  distress 
and  by  always  doing  what 
she  believes  to  be  her  duty. 
In  estimating  the  sig- 
nificance of  Sophocles  we 
should  look  at  him  not 
simply  as  a  tragedian  but 

as  an  artist — as  truly  an 

J  SOPHOCLES 

artist  as  was   .Phidias  or 

Praxiteles.  His  works,  like  theirs,  are  distinguished  by  pro- 
portion and  symmetry,  by  extraordinary  grace  and  beauty  of 
form.  In  his  dramas,  as  in  the  buildings  and  sculpture  of  the 


210 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


Acropolis,  we  see  the  distinctive  features  of  the  best  Hellenic 
taste. 

Euripides,  the  Dramatist  of  the  People. — The  last  of  the 
great  tragedians  was  Eurip'ides,  who  began  to  write  during  the 
period  of  Pericles,  but  composed  the  most  of  his  dramas  during 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  thus  represents  to  a  certain  de- 
gree the  changing  spirit  of  the  age.  While  less  of  an  artist 

than  Sophocles,  he  appealed 
more  strongly  to  the  sympa- 
thies of  the  people.  Aristotle 
called  him  the  "most  tragic  of 
poets."  Eighteen  of  his  plays 
are  still  extant;  and  from 
these  we  can  judge  of  his 
style  and  method  of  treating 
his  subjects.  In  his  hands  the 
chorus  became  less  connected 
with  the  action  of  the  play, 
and  his  characters  were 
brought  into  closer  relation 
to  common  life.  The  ancient 
FruiiMDEs  legends,  which  JEschylus  had 

clothed      with      a      sublime 

pathos,  and  Sophocles  had  invested  with  a  dignified  charm, 
Euripides  often  reduced  to  the  level  of  ordinary  events.  Al- 
though he  showed  a  lack  of  reverence  for  the  old  mytho'  ogy,  he 
was  a  poet  of  the  common  people,  and  appreciated  more  than 
his  predecessors  the  human  element  in  the  drama. 

The  Attic  Comedy;  Aristophanes. — In  its  origin  the  Greek 
comedy  was  closely  related  to  tragedy;  for  they  both  sprang 
from  the  hymns  which  accompanied  the  worship  of  Dionysus. 
But  while  tragedy  sprang  from  the  graver  choral  songs  which 
accompanied  the  winter  festival,  the  other  phase  of  the  drama 
— that  is,  comedy — sprang  from  the  more  frolicsome  songs 
which  attended  the  rural  festivals  in  the  springtime.  To  each 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OK    HKLLKMC    <T1/ITKK 


211 


of  them  was  added  the  dialogue;  but  each  retained  its  own 
character — the  one  grave  and  the  other  gay.  The  comedy  had 
already  begun  to  be  used  at  the  time  of  Pericles;  but  it  reached 
its  highest  development  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The 
purpose  of  the  comedy  was  to  excite  laughter  and  ridicule, 
and  hence  it  shows  the  capacity  of  the  Greeks  for  wit  and 
humor. 

The  greatest  of  all  the  comic  writers  of  the  Greeks  was 
Aristoph'anes,  who  flourished  during  the  period  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war.  He  mingled  in  the  political  life  of  Athens,  and 
belonged  to  the  party  which  was  "  against  the  government." 
His  comedies  might  give  us  the  best  picture  we  have  of  Athe- 
nian life,  if  they  contained  less  of  caricature  and  satire.  From 


MASKS  USED  IN  COMEDY 

other  sources  we  may  learn  that  some  of  his  pictures  are  fairly 
just,  while  others  are  marked  by  the  grossest  injustice.  Among 
his  most  noted  works  are  the  "  Clouds,"  the  "  Knights/'  the 
"  Wasps/'  and  the  "  Birds."  The  "  Clouds  "  is  chiefly  noted 
for  the  unjust  attack  which  it  makes  upon  the  philosopher  Soc- 
rates. The  "Knights"  describes  with  brilliant  satire  that 
coarse  demagogue  Cleon,  who,  though  not  an  admirable  charac- 
ter, perhaps  does  not  merit  all  the  abuse  he  received.  The 
"  Wasps  "  is  an  amusing  picture  of  the  Athenian  jury  system, 
in  which  every  man  is  represented  as  trying  to  get  a  day's  pay 
without  a  day's  work.  The  " Birds"  is  "a  fantastic  satire 
upon  the  Athenian  habit  of  building  castles  in  the  air,  and  of 
indulging  in  extravagant  dreams  of  conquest."  With  all  his 
ribaldry,  Aristophanes  was  a  poet  of  real  genius,  of  sparkling 
wit,  and  sometimes  of  exquisite  beauty. 


212 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


HERODOTUS 


III.     PROSE  LITERATURE:  HISTORY  AND  ORATORY 

Herodotus,  the  Father  of  History. — In  Greece,  as  elsewhere, 
poetry  precede  1  prose  in  the  order  of  development.  The  epic, 
the  elegy,  the  lyric,  the  drama,  had  been  cultivated  before  any 
noteworthy  works  in  prose  were  written.  The  first  really  great 
work  of  prose  literature  in  the  Greek  language  was  the  history 
written  by  Herodotus,  a  native  of  Halicar- 
nassus.  Herodotus  was  born  during  the 
period  of  the  Persian  wars.  This  great  con- 
flict between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians 
was  to  him  the  greatest  of  all  events.  It  be- 
came the  subject  of  his  history,  and  furnishes 
to  us  our  chief  knowledge  of  that  struggle. 
He  traveled  extensively,  and  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  manners,  institutions,  and 
legends  of  many  countries.  He  came  to 
Athens  when  the  culture  of  that  city  was  at  its  height;  and  he 
became  a  close  friend  of  Sophocles  and  an  ardent  admirer  of 
Pericles.  Under  these  influences 
his  history  became  imbued  with  an 
Athenian  spirit,  and  acquired  the 
character  of  an  artistic  literary 
composition.  Into  his  work  are 
skillfully  woven  the  narrative  of 
historical  events  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  foreign  countries,  facts 
which  he  himself  observed  as  well 
as  stories  and  myths  told  him  by 
others.  The  critical  accuracy  of 
Herodotus  has  often  been  ques- 
tioned; but  the  charming  qualities 
of  his  simple  and  <rniphie  style  have  always  been  admired. 
Thucydides,  the  Scientific  Historian. — While  we  may  re- 
gard Herodotus  as  the  father  of  narrative  history,  we  must 


THUCYDIDES 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE  213 

regard  Thucydides  as  the  creator  of  scientific  history.  His 
subject  was  the  Peloponnesian  war — a  war  in  which  he  had 
taken  a  subordinate  part.  His  work  is  marked  by  calm 
judgment,  a  love  of  truth,  honesty,  and  accuracy  in  the 
statement  of  facts,  and  a  perception  of  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect  in  historical  events.  His  style,  though  sometimes 
obscure,  is  pure  and  forcible,  and  withal  •"  classic," — which 
means  "  the  absence  of  all  that  is  tawdry,  the  absence  even  of 
all  that  we  call  florid,  a  certain  severity  and  reticence,  which 
are  as  marked  in  the  prose  of  Thucydides  as  in  the  marble  of 
Phidias"  (Mahaffy). 

Xenophon,  the  Historical  Essayist. — Following  in  the  wake 
of  Thucydides  was  the  genial  historical  writer  Xen'ophon.  Al- 
though he  can  hardly  be  compared  with  Thucydides  as  an 
historian,  he  wrote  in  an  easy  and  interesting  manner  upon 
a  great  variety  of  subjects.  His  "  Anabasis  "  tells  the  story 
of  the  March  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  in  which  he  'himself 
took  part  (see  p.  188).  His  "  Hellen'ica  "  continues  that  part 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war  left  unfinished  by  Thucydides.  His 
"  Memorabil'ia  "  draws  a  lifelike  portrait  of  his  great  master, 
Socrates.  His  "  Cyropaedi'a  "  professes  to  describe  the  educa- 
tion of  Cyrus  the  Great,  but  is  quite  as  much  a  description  of 
what  the  author  regards  as  a  just  prince.  His  "  (Econom'icus  " 
gives  us  an  insight  into  the  home  life  of  the  Greeks.  He 
wrote  interesting  works  upon  other  subjects,  the  variety  of 
which  might  justify  us  in  calling  him  an  essayist  as  well  as  an 
historian. 

Athenian  Oratory;  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Demosthenes. — That 
branch  of  prose  literature  which  is  distinctively  Greek  in  its 
origin,  is  oratory.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  oratory  was  the 
product  of  the  democratic  institutions  of  Athens.  The  greatest 
orator  of  the  age  of  Pericles  was  no  doubt  Pericles  himself; 
since  by  his  eloquence  he  controlled  for  twenty  years  the  Athe- 
nian assembly.  But  his  speeches  have  been  preserved  to  us 
only  in  the  reports  contained  in  the  history  of  Thucydides. 


214 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


LVSIA! 


Not  only  the  Athenian  assembly,  but  the  Athenian  courts  af- 
forded a  field  for  the  cultivation  of  eloquence,  for  here  every 

man  was   compelled   to  plead  his 
own  cause. 

Of  the  many  Athenian  orators 
who  attained  distinction,  we  may 
select  three  as  the  most  representa- 
tive— Lys'ias,  Isoc'rates,  and  De- 
mosthenes (who  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  the  general  of  the  same 
name).  Lysias  was  employed,  like 
many  others,  to  write  speeches  for 
those  who  were  obliged  to  plead 
their  own  cause  in  the  courts.  As 
he  wrote  for  plain  men,  he  used  a 
plain,  direct^  and  simple  style.  By 
writing  clearly  and  distinctly,  he  became  a  master  of  vivid  ;m<l 
effective  speech.  Somewhat 
different  from  Lysias  was 
Isocrates.  He  was  primarily 
a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and 
hence  the  orations  which  he 
wrote — but  did  not  deliver — 
have  more  of  a  rhetorical  fin- 
ish, and  are  perhaps  more  at- 
tractive in  language  than  ef- 
fective in  thought.  But  the 
greatest  of  all  the  orators  of 
(Jn-oce  was  Demosthenes,  who 
holds  the  same  preeminent 
place  in  oratory  that  Thucyd- 
ides  does  in  history.  His  life 
belongs  to  the  later  part  of 
the  Attic  period,  and  even  renehes  over  into  the  Macedonian 
epoch.  In  the  f.icc  <>!'  innumeraUlo  obstacles  lie  attained  the 


I  SOCRATES 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE  215 

greatest  skill  and  power  in  the  art  of  expression.  He  com- 
bined the  vivid  effective  speech  of  Lysias  with  the  finished 
periods  of  Isocrates;  but  he 
possessed,  more  than  either  of 
these,  an  earnestness  of  pur- 
pose, a  force  of  argument,  a 
power  of  persuasion,  and  an 
energy  of  diction  which  have 
given  him  a  place  among  the 
world's  greatest  orators.  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  orations 
are  his  twelve  "  Philippics,"  in 
which  he  appealed  to  his  coun- 
trymen to  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  Philip  of  Mac'edon.  DEMOSTHENES 

IV.     THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  ATHENS 

Anaxagoras,  the  First  Athenian  Philosopher, — One  of  the 

greatest  gifts  of  Athens  to  the  world  -has  been,  no  doubt,  the 
contributions  made  by  her  philosophical  thinkers.  It  was  not 
until  after  the  Persian  wars  that  Athens  became  the  philosoph- 
ical center  of  Greece.  The  first  thinker  who  belonged  to  what 
we  might  call  the  Athenian  school  was  Anaxag'oras.  Although 
born  at  Clazomenae  in  Asia  Minor,  he  early  came  to  Athens, 
where  he  spent  the  most  of  his  life,  and  numbered  among  his 
friends  Pericles  and  Euripides.  His  name  marks  an  epoch  in 
the  development  of  Greek  thought,  because  he  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  to  recognize  the  controlling  influence  of  mind 
and  reason  in  the  universe.  He  seems  to  have  believed  that 
matter  is  subordinate  to  mind — that  as  the  actions  of  the 
human  body  are  controlled  by  the  human  intelligence,  so  the 
movements  of  the  universe  are  controlled  by  a  universal  in- 
telligence. This  doctrine  was  opposed  to  the  old  mythology; 
and  as  the  people  were  jealous  of  their  ancient  beliefs, 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 13 


216 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


Anaxagoras  was  charged  with  atheism  and  banished  from  the 
city. 

The  Sophists  and  Greek  Dialectics. — There  grew  up  in 
Athens  a  certain  class  of  men  known  as  "  sophists."  They 
were  not  so  much  philosophers  in  the  old  sense  as  thinkers. 
That  is,  they  did  not  seek  to  discover  the  laws  of  the  universe 
so  iiiiu-h  as  tlu1  laws  of  the  human  mind.  They  sought  to  find 
nut  tlu'  methods  iii  \vhii-li  men  reason  and  arrive  at  conclusions. 
This  study  of  the  methods  and  the  art  of  reasoning  was  the 
essential  feature  of  Greek  "  dialectics."  We  might  therefore 
properly  characterize  the  Greek  sophists  as  "  dialecticians." 
They  gained  their  living  by  teaching  the  subjects  of  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  logic,  and  preparing  young  men  for  the  practical 
affairs  of  life.  It  was  often  charged  against  them  that  their 
learning  was  more  of  a  pretense  than  a  reality;  and  it  was  as- 
serted that  their  art  of  reasoning  degenerated  into  mere 

quibbling,  or  the  attempt  "  to 
make  the  worse  appear  the  bet- 
ter reason."  But  with  all  the 
faults  charged  against  them,  they 
no  doubt  exercised  some  benefi- 
cial influence,  both  upon  Greek 
education  and  upon  Greek  philos- 
ophy. 

The    Practical    Philosophy    of 
Socrates. — The    name    of    Socra- 
tes  was   associated   with   that   of 
the  sophists.     He  adopted  some- 
of    11  ie    same    method    of 


thinj 


SOCRATES 


dialectics.  But  he  believed  that 
the  art  of  reasoning  should  be  employed  not  as  mere  exer- 
cise or  (lis< -ipliiH-.  but  as  a  means  of  discovering  those 
practical  truths  which  are  important  in  the  conduct  of 
human  life.  The  son  of  a  poor  sculptor,  with  no  personal 
attractions,  he  became  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE 


217 


in  Athens.  He  turned  the  thoughts  of  men  into  new  chan- 
nels. He  showed  them  how  foolish  it  was  to  follow  the  method 
of  the  old  philosophers  and  to  speculate  about  things  which 
cannot  be  known.  His  first  maxim  was,  "Know  thyself." 
He  taught  men  that  true  wisdom  consists  in  knowing  that 
which  is  good  and  doing  that  which  is  right.  /He  taught  them 
the  difference  between  justice  and  injustice,  between  virtue  and 
vice,  between  courage  and  cowardice.  He  taught  them  their 
duties  to  themselves,  to  their  fellow-men,  and  to  God.  His 
long  life  extended  beyond  the  period  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  He  was  finally  tried  and  condemned  to  death  by  a  small 
majority  of  his  fellow-citizens, 
on  the  charge  of  introducing 
new  gods  into  the  state  and  of 
corrupting  the  youth.  Soc- 
rates represented  the  higher 
intellectual  and  moral  life  of 
Greece.  He_left  no  writings; 
but  his  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  world  has  never 
ceased. 

The  Idealistic  Philosophy 
of  Plato. — Socrates  left  be- 
hind him  many  disciples  who 
founded  new  schools.  But  the 
most  distinguished  of  these 
was  Plato,  the  founder  of  the 
so-called  "  Academic  school." 

He  carried  out  still  farther  the  method  of  Socrates.  In  order 
to  discover  truth,  he  studied  the  ideas  in  the  human  mind, 
which  he  believed  are  reflections  of  the  ideas  in  the  divine 
mind.  He  believed,  that  our  ideas  are  born  with  us,  brought 
into  the  world  from  our  preexistent  state.  The  divine  ideas 
are  embodied,  not  only  in  us,  but  in  the  world;  and  we  should 
study  the  universe  to  discover  these  ideal  principles  in  accord- 


PLATO 


218 


THE    GREEK    WOULD 


ance  with  which  all  things  are  governed.  So,  in  human  life, 
we  should  conform  to  the  ideal  principles  of  justice  and  virtue; 
in  other  words,  a  perfect  life  is  a  life  in  harmony  with  the  di- 
vine Idea.  By  such  a  method  of  thinking,  Plato  constructed  a 
broad  system  of  idealistic  philosophy.  The  writings  of  Plato 
are  in  the  form  of  dialogues,  in  which  Socrates  is  often  repre- 
sented as  the  chief  speaker.  The  dialogues  are  often  named 
after  some  person;  for  example,  the  "  Protag'oras,"  which  dis- 
cusses the  nature  of  virtue;  the  "  Phaedo,"  which  sets  forth  the 
arguments  in  favor  of  immortality.  One  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  Plato's  Dialogues  is  "  The  Republic,"  which  dis- 
cusses the  principles  which  should  govern  the  perfect  state. 
From  the  political  conflicts  of  the  time  Plato  stood  aloof;  and 
hence  he  shows  to  us  the 
Greek  mind  in  its  purest  and 
most  tranquil  frame. 

The  Realistic  Philosophy 
of  Aristotle. — The  course  of 
Greek  philosophy  was  contin- 
ued in  Aristotle,  who,  though 
born  in  the  city  of  Stagi'ra 
(or  Stagirus)  in  Chalcidice, 
came  to  Athens  and  became 
a  pupil  of  Plato.  Although 
he  regarded  himself  as  a  fol- 
lower of  Plato,  his  method 
differed  considerably  from 
that  of  his  master.  If  we  call 
Plato's  philosophy  idealistic, 

we  may  call  Aristotle's  realistic.  Instead  of  beginning  with 
ideas,  Aristotle  began  with  facts;  and  he  tried  to  discover  the 
general  laws  which  govern  the  facts  of  nature.  He  was  there- 
fore a  man  of  wide  observation  and  general  learning.  By  <ratli- 
ering  and  classifying  a  vast  number  of  facts,  he  became  the 
founder  of  many  sciences — of  Logic,  which  treats  of  the  laws 


ARISTOTLE  (So-called) 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF   HELLENIC    CULTURE  219 

of  thought;  of  Psychology,  or  the  science  of  the  human  mind; 
of  Biology,  or  the  science  of  living  things;  of  Politics,  or  the 
science  of  the  state.  He  is  said  to  have  studied  the  constitu- 
tions of  many  of  the  states  of  Greece;  and  the  recently  dis- 
covered work  on  the  Athenian  constitution,  which  is  attributed 
to  him,  has  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  that  government. 
Aristotle,  like  Demosthenes,  belongs  to  the  later  part  of  the 
period  we  are  now  considering,  and  his  life  extended  into  the 
Macedonian  period. 

V.     SOCIAL  LIFE  AND  MANNERS 

Industrial  Occupations. — As  we  regard  Athens  as  the  intel- 
lectual center  of  Greece,  so  we  may  regard  its  social  life  as 
typical  of  that  which  prevailed  in  most  of  the  Grecian  cities. 
The  democratic  spirit  of  the  Athenian  people  was  opposed  to 
any  strict  division  into  classes — except  the  distinction  between 
freemen  and  slaves.  All  freemen  were  equal,  having  the  same 
rights  and  privileges.  We  may,  however,  group  the  free  in- 
habitants of  Attica  according  to  their  industrial  occupations, 
or  the  modes  in  which  they  obtained  their  living.  We  might, 
in  the  first  place,  regard  "  politics  "  as  a  business  at  Athens. 
It  is  true  that  the  higher  officers  of  the  state  received  no  pay; 
;but  pay  was  given  to  those  who  served  in  the  army  and  fleet,  in 
the  council,  and  in  the  courts.  The  courts  often  swarmed  with 
persons  who  desired  to  make  their  living  by  receiving  the  small 
pay  given  to  jurors.  Again,  there  was  a  class  of  professional 
men  like  physicians,  artists,  teachers,  legal  advisers,  some  of 
whom  received  not  only  fees  for  their  services,  but  fixed  sal- 
aries paid  by  the  state.  Besides  these  were  the  commercial 
classes,  including  the  merchants,  brokers,  and  traders,  who 
formed  the  wealthier  body  of  the  citizens.  Moreover,  there 
was  a  large  class  of  artisans,  such  as  workers  in  wood,  iron, 
clay,  glass,  silver  and  gold,  who  furnished  many  products  that 
were  exported  to  other  parts  of  Hellas.  Agricultural  pursuits 


220 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


were  always  regarded  as  honorable  by  the  Athenians,  and  it  is 
said  that  no  one  but  a  free  citizen  could  own  land  in  Attica. 
The  more  menial  kinds  of  labor  were  performed  by  the  slaves,, 
of  whom  there  were  a  very  large  number  in  Attica,  but  whose 
condition  cannot  be  regarded  as  very  wretched,  since  they  gen- 


INTERIOR  OF  A  GREEK  HOUSE  (Restoration) 

erally  received  humane  treatment  at  the  hands  of  their  masters. 
The  worst  feature  of  Athenian  slavery  was  to  throw  a  re- 
proach upon  manual  labor,  and  thus  degrade  the  poorer  class 
of  freemen  who  were  obliged  to  engage  in  such  work. 

The  Athenian  House,  Furniture.  Dress. — Although  the  pub- 
lic buildings  of  Athens  were  magnificent  and  expensive,  the 
ordinary  dwelling  house  was  in  its  external  appearance  simple 
and  unpretentious.  It  consisted  of  a  series  of  rooms,  surround- 
ing a  court  which  opened  to  the  sky.  The  interior  of  the  finer 
houses,  however,  presented  a  dignified  and  artistic  appearance, 
with  their  peristyles  of  columns  and  rich  decorations  and  fur- 
niture. Chairs  and  couches  of  ornamental  woodwork,  artistir 


ATTIC    PERIOD    OF    HELLENIC    CULTURE 


221 


ATHENA 


lamps  of  bronze  or  terra  cotta,  bronze  or  marble  statuettes,  and 

elegant  vases  of  precious  metal,  all  showed 

the  refinement  of  the  Greek  taste. 

The  Greeks  also  showed  their  simple 

and  refined  taste  in  their  dress,  which 

presented  a  strong  contrast  to  the  elaborate 

and  gaudy  apparel  of  the  Oriental  peoples. 

It  consisted  usually  of  two  garments :  first 

a  tunic  called  chiton  (pron.  H'fon),  held 

in  place  by  clasps  upon  the  shoulders; 

and  second,  a  broad  cloak,  called  liima'- 

tion,  thrown  in  loose  folds  about  the  per- 
son.    The  dress  of  the  men  and  that  of 

the  women  were  quite  similar,  although 

the   latter   was   more   full    and   flowing. 

The  graceful  effect  of  the  simple  female 

costume  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 
Marriage  and  the  Position  of  Women. 
—The  father  of  the  family  provided  for 
the  marriage  of  his  children,  and  the 
betrothal  was  really  an  engagement  be- 
tween the  parents  of  the  bride  and 
groom.  Although  marriage  was  a  legal 
contract,  .the  wedding  was  a  sacred  as 
well  as  a  festive  ceremony,  attended 
with  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  and  a  ban- 
quet in  which  the  guests  partook  of  the 
wedding  cake  and  joined  in  the  nuptial 
song. 

The     Athenians    believed     that    the 
proper  sphere  of  woman  was  the  home, 
and  hence  she  was  deprived  of  the  lib- 
erty which  she  enjoyed  in  Homeric  times,  and  even  at  this 

time  in  Sparta.     She  was  taught  that  politics  and  the  turmoil 

of  the  street  should  be  left  to  men.     Her  domestic  employ- 


POLYMNIA 


222 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


ments — spinning,  weaving,  and  embroidering — were  not  of 
course  conducive  to  high  intellectual  culture.  She  could  not, 
therefore,  exercise  the  elevating  social  influence  that  is  pos- 
sible in  modern  times.  But  in  spite  of  her  inferior  position, 
the  Athenians  were  not  unappreciative  of  the  nobler  qualities 
of  the  female  character,  as  is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  "  Antig- 
one "  of  Sophocles. 

Athenian  Education. — Education  formed  a  very  important 
part  of  Greek  life.  Its  aim  was  to  develop  as  far  as  possible  a 
perfect  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  manhood,  and  to  pre- 
pare young  men  for  the  duties  which  belong  to  free  citizens. 
The  Athenians  were  thoroughly  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  training  the  body,  the  mind,  and  the  character.  Gymnastics, 
mental  discipline,  and  moral  inspiration  were  the  chief  fea- 
tures of  their  educational  methods.  The  boy  was  not  only 
taught  by  his  teacher  at  school,  but  was  constantly  under  the 
supervision  of  his  "  pedagogue,"  a  trusty  servant  who  accom- 
panied him  to  school  and  watched  over  him  elsewhere.  The 
elementary  training  consisted  of  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic. The  boy  com- 
mitted to  memory  the 
wise  sayings  of  the  old 
poets,  and  copied  these 
proverbs  upon  a  waxen 
tablet  by  means  of  the 
stylus;  and  his  arith- 
metical computations 
were  made  with  the  aid 
of  the  abacus,  or  count- 
ing board.  To  this  was 
added  music,  for  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings;  \vhilc  his  sys- 
tematic exercise  in  the  gymnasium  was  intended  to  give  him  a 
sound,  symmetrical,  and  vigorous  body.  Besides  this  elemen- 
tary discipline  there  was  added  the  more  advanced  education 
obtained  from  the  conversation  and  lectures  of  professional 


A  LESSON  IN  THE  POETS 


ATTIC    I'KKIOI)    OK    I  HOLM-:  NIC    CULTUKIO  223 

teachers,  like  the  sophists.  Such  instruction  was  given  in  the 
porches  of  the  Agora,  and  in  other  public  places.  It  included 
all  branches  of  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge;  and  its  aim 
was  to  give  what  we  should  call  a  liberal  education — to  make 
broad-minded  men  and  enlightened  citizens. 

Athenian  Sociability;  the  Banquet  and  Symposium. — The 
Athenians  were  essentially  a  sociable  people.  This  is  seen  in 
their  hospitality,  their  love  of  companionship,  of  conversation, 
and  of  social  entertainments.  The  open  air  was  in  many  re- 
spects the  home  of  the  Athenian  gentleman;  for  in  the  streets 
he  could  always  find  his  friends,  with  whom  he  was  accustomed 
to  pass  away  many  hours  of  the  day.  One  of  the  chief  centers 
of  the  social  life  of  Athens — as  it  was  of  the.  political  and  com- 
mercial life — was  the  Agora.  The  Athenians  also  found  other 
places  of  resort  and  social  pleasure  in  the  gymnasia,  of  which 
the  most  famous  were  the  Lyceum  and  the  Academy — the 
former  situated  just  outside  of  the  city  to  the  east,  and  the 
latter  about  a  mile  to  the  north.  There  were  also  clubs, 
originally  founded  for  the  sake  of  companionship,  and  after- 
ward acquiring  a  political  character  as  well. 

The  chief  source  of  social  entertainment  in  the  evening  was 
the  banquet,  with  the  accompanying  "  symposium."  Reclining 
on  couches,  the  guests  partook  of  the  repast  furnished  by  the 
host,  and  then  were  regaled  with  dashes  of  oratory,  sparks  of 
wit,  rehearsals  from  the  poets,  and  the  music  of  the  flute  or 
lyre,  or  perhaps  amused  by  professional  dancers,  jugglers,  and 
contortionists.  The  character  of  the  symposium  of  course 
varied  with  the  refinement  of  the  guests;  but  it  was  a  fair 
expression  of  Greek  social  and  intellectual  culture. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  ATHENS  AS  THE  CENTER  OF  HELLENIC  ART. — Greek  Politics 
and  Hellenic  Culture. — The  Attic  Period,  its  Character  and 
Phases. — The  City  of  Athens. — Athenian  Architecture. — Athenian 
Sculpture. — Athenian  Painting. 


224  THE    GREEK    WORLft 

II.  THE  THEATER  AND   DRAMATIC   LITERATURE. — The  Theater 
of  Dionysus. — Origin  of  the  Greek  Drama. — ^Eschylus,  the  Father 
of    Tragedy. — Sophocles,    the    Dramatic    Artist. — Euripides,    the 
Dramatist  of  the  People.— The  Attic  Comedy;   Aristophanes. 

III.  PROSE   LITERATURE:    HISTORY   AND   ORATORY.— Herodotus, 
the  Father  of  History.— Thucydides,  the  Scientific  Historian.— 
Xenophon,  the   Historical   Essayist. — Athenian  Oratory;    Lysias, 
Isocrates,  Demosthenes. 

IV.  THE     PHILOSOPHY    OP    ATHENS.— Anaxagoras,     the     First 
Athenian  Philosopher. — The  Sophists  and  Greek  Dialectics. — The 
Practical  Philosophy  of  Socrates. — The  Idealistic  Philosophy  of 
Plato.— The  Realistic  Philosophy  of  Aristotle. 

V.  SOCIAL  LIFE  AND  MANNERS. — Industrial   Occupations. — The 
Athenian  House,   Furniture,   Dress. — Marriage  and  the  Position 
of     Women. — Athenian     Education. — Athenian     Sociability,     the 
Banquet  and  Symposium. 

REFERENCES   FOR    READING 

Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  13,  "The  Imperial  City";  Ch.  15,  "Litera- 
ture" (10).' 

Abbott,  Pericles,  Ch.  17,  "The  Athens  of  Pericles"  (27). 

Ducoudray,  Ch.  9,  "Greek  Literature  and  Art"   (1). 

Smith,  Wm.,  Ch.  34,  "Athens  and  Athenian  and  Grecian  Art 
during  the  Period  of  her  Empire";  Ch.  35,  "History  of  Athe- 
nian Literature  to  the  End  of  the  Peloponnesian  War"  (10). 

Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  4,  "Passage  from  Sporadic  to  Systematic 
Culture"  (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  11,  §  6,  "The  Restoration  of  the  Temples";  §  11, 
"Higher  Education;  the  Sophists"  (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  592-641,  "Athens  the  Center  of  Intellectual 
Life"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  20,  "Athens  under  Pericles";  Ch.  26,  "The 
New  Culture,  Rhetoric  and  Sophistry";  Ch.  29.  "Art  and 
Literature"  (10). 

Macaulay,  Essay  on  History  (Herodotus  and  Thucydides  com- 
pared). 

Zeller,  Second  Period,  "Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle"   (15). 

Guhl  and  Koner,  §  30,  "The  Theater"  (11). 

Symonds,  Greek  Poets,  Ch.  9,  "Ancient  and  Modern  Tragedy" 
(15). 

Tarbell,  Chs.  8,  9,  Great  Age  of  Greek  Sculpture  (12). 

Gulick,  Ch.  14,  "Social  Life  and   Entertainments"   (11). 

Bliimner,  Ch.  4,  "Marriage  and  Women"   (11). 

Mahaffy,  Old  Greek  Life,  Ch.  4,  "Public  Life  of  the  Greek 
Citizen"  (11). 

Felton,  Vol.  II.,  Second  Course,  "The  Life  of  Greece"  (10). 

'The   figure  in   parenthesis   refers   to   the  number  of   the  topic   in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PEKIOD  IV,    THE  UNION  OP  GKEEOE  AND  THE  ORIENT 
(359-146  B,  0.) 


CHAPTER    XV 

MACEDONIA   AND   THE  EMPIRE   OF   ALEXANDER 

I.     THE  RISE  OF  MACEDONIA  UNDER  PHILIP 

The  New  Epoch  in  Greek  History. — We  have  now  reached  a 
new  and  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  Greece — and,  in 
fact,  in  the  history  of  the  ancient  world.  The  failure  of  the 
Greek  states  to  develop  a  national  government — either  in 
the  form  of  a  permanent  confederacy,  or  by  submitting  to  the 
leadership  of  one  of  their  own  number — led  to  the  final  over- 
throw of  the  very  liberties  which  they  were  so  anxious  to  pre- 
serve. In  striving  to  maintain  their  independence  from  one 
another,  they  were  compelled  at  last  to  submit  to  the  control 
of  a  foreign  power.  The  supremacy  which  they  were  unwilling 
to  give  to  Athens,  to  Sparta,  or  to  Thebes,  they  were  at  last 
obliged  to  yield  to  Macedonia.  The  rise  of  Macedonia,  and  the 
interference  of  this  new  power  in  the  internal  affairs  of  Greece, 
therefore,  mark  a  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Grecian  states. 

But  we  shall  see  that  Macedonia  established  her  supremacy 
not  only  over  the  states  of  Greece,  but  also  over  the  countries 
of  western  Asia;  so  that  Greece  and  the  Orient  became  united 
in  a  common  world-empire.  The  most  important  feature  of 
this  new  period,  however,  is  not  so  much  the  establishment  of 
a  common  political  authority  over  the  countries  of  the  ancient 

225 


226 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


SCALE  OF  MILE 
C       10     2'0 


world,  as  the  diffusion  of  the  Greek  genius  among  the  peoples 
of  the  East.  If  in  earlier  times  the  tide  of  Orientalism  once 
flowed  toward  the  ^Egean,  now  the  tide  of  Hellenism  is  to  flow 
back  toward  the  Orient.  If  during  the  Attic  period  the  Hel- 
lenic culture  tended  to  become  centralized  in  Athens,  now  the 
culture  of  Greece  is  to  transcend  the  narrow  limits  of  Hellas 
and  to  become  a  possession  for  every  people.  The  essential 
feature  of  the  coming  epoch  is,  therefore,  the  union  of  Greece 
and  the  Orient  in  a  wider  civilization,  which  we  may  call 
"  Graco-Oriental."  But  first  let  us  see  how  this  union  was 
accomplished,  under  the  supremacy  of  Macedonia  and  the  lead- 
ership of  Philip  II.  and  Alexander  the  Great. 

Macedonia  and  the  Greeks. — Macedonia  was  a  country  lying 
to  the  north  of  Thessaly,  beyond  the  Cambunian  Mountains. 

The  people  were  re- 
motely related  to  the 
Greeks.  But  they 
were  still  for  the  most 
part  in  a  semi-bar- 
barous condition,  al- 
though they  were 
capable  of  becoming  a 
strong  nation.  They 
were  a  hardy  race, 
and  had  in  them  the 
making  of  good  sol- 
diers. In  the  high- 
lands they  were  separated  into  many  tribes,  each  under  its 
own  chief.  But  in  the  lowlands,  near  the  sea,  they  had 
come  into  contact  with  the  Greek  colonies,  and  had  begun 
to  be  more  civilized  and  to  have  something  like  a  united  gov- 
ernment. At  the  time  of  the  Theban  supremacy,  Macedonia 
became  so  strong  and  threatening  that  Pelopidas  invaded  the 
country,  checked  the  ambition  of  its  ruler,  and  brought  back  to 
Thebes  the  young  prince  Philip  as  a  hostage.  This  young 


E  PI  R 


MACEDONIA  AT  THE  ACCESSION  OF 

I'IIII.IP  II. 


MACEDONIA  227 

Philip,  while  in  bondage,  became  versed  in  the  civilized  i\\-\< 
of  Greece  and  especially  in  the  military  system  of  Epaminon- 
das,  and  thus  became  fitted  for  his  future  work  as  the  king 
of  Macedonia. 

Accession  and  Character  of  Philip  II.  (359  B.  c.). — On  his 
return  to  Macedonia  Philip  was  appointed  regent  of  the  king- 
dom at  the  age  of  twenty- three;  and  in  a  short  time  he  had 
himself  proclaimed  king. 
He  proved  to  be  a  man  of 
wonderful  ability,  versed 
in  the  best  as  well  as  the 
worst  arts  of  statecraft. 
He  possessed  unusual 

powers     of    organization.  THILIP  II.  (Coin) 

He  was  able  as  a  warrior, 
and  still  more  able  as  a  wily  diplomatist.  He  extended  his 
power  over  the  mountain  tribes,  and  pushed  back  the  barba- 
rians who  were  threatening  the  frontiers  of  his  kingdom  on 
the  north  and  west.  But  more  than  this,  he  gathered  together 
his  scattered  subjects  into  a  well-organized  army.  This  gave 
to  the  people  a  common  military  discipline  and  a  common 
national  spirit.  In  organizing  his  army,  Philip  adopted  tho 
Greek  phalanx;  but  he  strengthened  it  by  making  the  line  six- 
teen instead  of  eight  men  deep.  He  armed  the  men  with  lances 
twenty-one  feet  long,  so  that  the  front  of  the  phalanx  presented 
a  projecting  forest  of  bristling  spears.  He  also  organized  a  fine 
body  of  heavy-armed  cavalry,  made  up  of  the  best  men  of  the 
kingdom  and  called  "  companions,"  which  formed  in  action  the 
right  arm  of  his  battle  line.  By  his  political  and  military  skill 
he  was  able  in  a  few  years  to  convert  a  semi-barbarous  country 
into  a  well-organized  and  growing  kingdom. 

The  Aggressions  of  Philip  upon  Greece, — The  chief  ambi- 
tion of  Philip  was  to  make  himself  master  of  Greece.  He 
first  interfered  in  the  affairs  of  the  Athenian  colonies  in  Chal- 
cidice,  which  Athens  was  not  able  to  prevent,  as  she  was  at 


22S  THE   GKEEK    WORLD 

the  same  time  engaged  in  an  unsuccessful  war  with  some  of 
her  allies— the  "Social  war"  (358-355  B.  c.).  Philip  was 
aided  in  his  aggressions  upon  Greece  by  the  distracted  condi- 
tion of  the  Greek  states  themselves,, — especially  in  the  so-called 
"  Sacred  war  "  (357-346  B.  c.) .  This  war  grew  out  of  the  at- 
tempt of  Thebes  and  the  Amphictyonic  League  to  punish 
Phocis  for  seizing  lands  belonging  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Greece  was  affected,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  by  this  war.  Philip  now  appeared  as 
the  ally  of  Thebes  and  the  champion  of  Apollo.  He  invaded 
Thessaly  and  made  himself  master  of  that  country.  Pressing 
on  to  Thermopylae,  he  found  this  pass  held  by  an  Athenian 
army.  Instead  of  exposing  his  own  army  to  slaughter,  he 
deemed  it  wiser  to  withdraw  and  to  wait  for  a  more  convenient 
season  in  which  to  extend  his  influence  in.  Greece. 

Demosthenes  and  Philip. — The  one  great  man  who  now  ap- 
peared as  the  defender  of  Greece  against  Philip  was  Demos- 
thenes. He  had  already  made  a  reputation  as  an  orator;  and 
he  now  assumed  the  role  of  a  statesman.  To  arouse  Greece  to 
a  sense  of  her  danger,  he  delivered  the  first  of  a  series  of  fa- 
mous orations  known  as  "  Philippics."  Philip  was  now  busy  in 
the  north,  trying  to  get  possession  of  Olynthus,  and  to  reduce 
to  his  power  the  whole  Chalcidian  confederacy.  Olynthus  ap- 
pealed to  Athens  for  aid;  and  Demosthenes  delivered  his 
"  Olynthiac  orations,"  to  urge  the  people  to  make  war  upon 
Philip  and  to  save  the  Chalcidian  city.  His  earnest  efforts  in- 
duced the  Athenians  to  declare  war,  but  failed  to  save  the  be- 
leaguered town.  Olynthus  fell  (348  B.  c.),  and  with  it  all  the 
Chalcidian  cities,  whose  inhabitants,  according  to  the  ancient 
custom,  were  either  put  to  death  or  sold  into  slavery.  The 
kingdom  of  Philip  now  extended  nearly  to  the  Hellespont  on 
the  east,  and  to  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  on  the  south. 

To  allay  the  fears  which  had  been  inspired  by  Demosthenes, 
Philip  consented  to  a  peace  with  Athens — the  Peace  of  Philoc'- 
rates  (346  B.  c.) — in  which  each  party  professed  friendship  for 


MACEDONIA  229 

the  other  and  each  agreed  to  respect  the  other's  possessions. 
Having  conciliated  Athens,  Philip  marched  to  Delphi,  dis- 
mantled the  Phocian  towns,  scattered  their  inhabitants  in 
small  villages,  and  received  himself  the  two  votes  in  the 
Amphictyonic  council  that  hitherto  had  belonged  to  Phocis. 
To  extend  his  influence  in  Greece,  he  then  formed  friendly  al- 
liances with  a  number  of  the  states  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

Battle  of  Chaeronea;  the  End  of  Greek  Freedom  (338  B.  c.). 
—But  Athens  was  still  suspicious  of  the  designs  of  the  Mace- 
donian king.  She  saw  that  Philip  was  threatening  to  make 
further  aggressions  in  Thrace  and  also  in  central  Greece. 
Through  the  influence  of  Demosthenes  Athens  and  Thebes  now 
joined  in  a  final  effort  to  crush  the  king.  But  at  Chasronea,  in 
Bceotia  (map,  p.  191),  Philip  defeated  the  combined  forces  of 
the  Grecian  allies,  and  destroyed  the  last  opposition  to  his 
power.  This  battle  is  generally  regarded  as  marking  the  loss 
of  Grecian  independence.  But  we  can  see  that  the  independ- 
ence of  Greece  had  been  gradually  declining  since  the  first 
interference  of  Philip  in  Grecian  affairs.  Greece  fell  before 
Macedonia  on  account  of  her  incapacity  to  form  a  united  state, 
like  that  which  Philip  had  created  for  his  people. 

The  Congress  of  Corinth;  Death  of  Philip. — Philip  now 
proceeded  to  do  for  Greece  what  Greece  had  failed  to  do  for 
herself.  He  called  together  at  Corinth  a  congress  of  all  the 
states.  This  congress  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  repre- 
sentative body  that  the  Hellenic  world  had  ever  seen — Sparta 
only  standing  aloof.  The  king  gave  to  the  Greeks  a  constitu- 
tion which  formed  a  kind  of  federal  state.  Every  city  was  to 
be  free,  and  to  manage  its  own  affairs,  and  not  to  be  subject  to 
any  tribute.  The  Amphictyonic  council  was  to  be  the  supreme 
arbiter  in  the  settlement  of  disputes  between  the  different 
states.  The  king  was  to  be  the  president,  having  the  power 
to  declare  war  and  peace.  At  this  congress  Philip  also  re- 
vealed his  greatest  project,  which  was  nothing  less  than  the 
conquest  of  Persia,  in  which  Greeks  and  Macedonians  would 


230 


THE   GREEK   WORLD 


unite  in  avenging  the  wrongs  done  to  Greece  since  the  days  of 
Xerxes.  The  proposals  of  the  king  were  accepted,  and  he  was 
appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  armies  which  were  to 
invade  the  Persian  empire.  But  while  making  plans  for  this 
expedition,  Philip  was  assassinated  (336  B.  c.),  and  the  comple- 
tion of  his  work  was  left  to  his  son,  Alexander  the  Great. 


II.     THE  EMPIRE  OF  ALEXANDER 

Beginning  of  Alexander's  Career. — Alexander  was  well 
qualified  to  carry  on  the  work  begun  by  Philip.  He  was  fitted 
both  by  nature  and  b}'  education  for  a  career  which  in  many 
respects  has  no  parallel  in  the  world's  history.  From  his 

father  he  inherited  an  imperial 
will,  a  keen  insight  into  men 
and  things,  and  a  genius  for 
military  organization.  From 
his  mother — a  half-barbarian 
princess — he  inherited  an  im- 
petuous nature,  a  fitful,  fiery 
temper,  and  a  tendency  to  su- 
perstition. By  his  great  teach- 
er, Aristotle,  he  was  trained  to 
virtue  and  the  love  of  truth,  to 
an  exalted  appreciation  of 
knowledge,  and  to  a  sympathy 
ALEXANDER  with  the  Hellenic  spirit.  From 

his  favorite  author,  Homer,  he 

derived  a  heroic  inspiration,  a  zeal  for  warlike  action,  and  a 
passion  to  rival  the  deeds  of  Achilles.  From  the  time  tlmt  lie 
was  a  boy  of  twelve — when,  according  to  Plutarch.  he  had 
tamed  the  fiery  steed  Buceph'alus — to  the  battle  of  Chaeronea, 
where  he  had  led  the  Macedonian  cavalry,  he  had  shown  that 
he  was  horn  to  rule.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  ascended  his 
father's  throne.  His  first  work  was  to  quell  the  spirit  of  re- 


THE    KMl'lUK    OF    ALEXANDKU  231 

volt  which  seemed  everywhere  to  show  itself  with  the  news  of 
his  father's  death.  He  put  out  of  the  way  his  possible  rivals. 
He  entered  Greece  and  had  himself  proclaimed  commander  in 
chief,  as  his  father  had  done.  He  punished  the  tribes  of  the 
north  and  west  which  threatened  the  frontiers  of  his  kingdom. 
Angered  by  a  Grecian  revolt  led  by  Thebes,  he  wiped  that  city 
from  the  earth,  sparing  only  the  temples  and  the  house  of  Iho 
poet  Pindar.  Having  pacified  his  kingdom  in  Europe,  he  was 
ready  to  enter  upon  the  conquest  of  Asia. 

Asia  Minor;  Battle  of  the  Granicus  (334  B.  c.).— The  first 
country  to  be  brought  under  his  control  was  Asia  Minor.  He 
crossed  the  Hellespont  with  a 
small  but  well-trained  army,  con- 
sisting of  thirty  thousand  infan- 
try and  five  thousand  cavalry.  He 
first  visited  the  plains  of  Troy,  al- 
ready hallowed  in  his  imagination 

by  the  tales  of  Homer;  here  he  of-         BATTLE  QF  GKANICU9 
fered  a  sacrifice  to  Athena,  and     ^  Maeedonlan  phalanx.  „,  „. 

paid     homage      to      the     tomb      Of  lied   cavalry;   c,   companion 

.    ,  .„  TT-        „  ,     , ,,  cavalry ;   d,   light   infantry ; 

Achilles.        HlS     first     battle     Was  e,      archers      and      javelin 

fought  at  the  river  Grani'cus,  a  throwers 
small  stream  flowing  into  the  Propontis,  where  he  practically 
destroyed  the  whole  Persian  army,  with  but  a  small  loss  on 
his  own  part.  The  victory  at  the  Granicus  was  followed  by 
the  speedy  submission  of  the  cities  in  Asia  Minor.  Alexander 
then  moved  north  to  Gordium,  the  old  capital  of  Phrygia, 
where  he  quartered  his  army  for  the  winter,  and  according  to 
the  well-known  story  "  cut  the  Gordian  knot." 

Syria;  Battle  of  Issus  and  Siege  of  Tyre  (333  B.  c.).— The 
next  country  to  be  conquered  was  Syria.  Alexander  marched 
from  Gordium  southward  through  the  passes  of  the  Taurus 
Mountains  to  Tarsus;  then  through  the  city  of  Issus  into  the 
open  plains  of  Syria,  where  he  expected  to  meet  the  armies  of 
the  Persian  king,  Darius  III.  In  the  meantime,  Darius  had 


ISTo.  1O. 


233 


BATTLE  OF  Issus 
(For  letters,  see  p.  231) 


THE    EMPIRE    OF    ALEXANDER 

'  assembled  a  vast  horde  of  six  hundred  thousand  men  and 
moved  to  the  north  and  to  the  rear  of  Alexander's  army,  hop- 
ing to  cut  off  its  retreat.  Alexander  marched  back  and  at- 
tacked Darius  in  his  chosen  posi- 
tion, near  Issus.  After  a  severe 
conflict,  a  large  part  of  the  Per- 
si.m  army  was  destroyed  and  the 
rest  put  to  flight.  Alexander  then 
continued  his  march  southward 
through  Sidon  and  reached  Tyre. 
At  this  place  he  met  the  most  seri- 
ous resistance  that  he  encoun- 
tered in  all  his  campaigns.  The 

new  city  of  Tyre  was  situated  on  an  island  about  half  a  mile 
from  the  coast.  Having  no  fleet  at  hand,  Alexander  could 
reach  the  city  only  by  building  an  im- 
mense mole,  or  causeway,  through  the 
sea  to  the  walls.  By  this  stupendous 
piece  of  work  he  was  able  to  storm  and 
capture  the  city.  The  overtures  for 
peace  which  the  Persian  king  now  felt 
disposed  to  offer  him  were  scornfully 
rejected. 

Egypt;  Founding  of  Alexandria 
(332  B.  c.). — There  remained  only  one 
more  province  on  the  Mediterranean 
to  be  secured,  and  that  was  Egypt. 

The  march  to  the  south,  however,  was  blocked  at  Gaza,  a 
strongly  fortified  town  defended  by  its  faithful  governor.  Batis. 
To  assault  these  walls  Alexander  performed  another  great  feat 
of  engineering  skill.  He  built  a  mound  of  earth,  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high  and  twelve  hundred  feet  broad  at  the  base, 
around  the  entire  city.  Although  repulsed  three  times,  he 
finally  took  the  town  by  storm.  He  put  to  death  what  re- 
mained of  the  garrison,  and  sold  the  women  and  children  into 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 14 


SIEGE  OF  TYRE 


MACEDONIANS 


234:  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

slavery.  The  way  was  now  open  to  Egypt,  which  wel- 
comed Alexander  as  a  deliverer.  On  the  coast  west  of  the 
Delta,  he  founded  the  new  city  of  Alexandria,  the  first  and 
most  famous  of  many  towns  which  perpetuated  his  name. 
Thence  he  moved  westward  along  the  coast,  and  then  south- 
ward through  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  noted  temple  and  oracle 
of  Zeus  Aminon.  Here,  it  is  said,  the  oracle  addressed  him  as 
the  son  of  Zeus  and  the  future  conqueror  of  the  world.  This 
may  have  had  some  influence  upon  Alexander,  in  leading  him 
to  claim  divine  honors  for  himself. 

Central  Persia;  Battle  of  Arbela  (331  B.  c.). — Having  or- 
ganized the  government  of  Egypt,  Alexander  returned  to  Tyre 
and  made  his  preparations  to  pierce  the  heart  of  the  Persian 

empire.  He  crossed  the  Eu- 
phrates River  and  passed 
through  upper  Mesopotamia 
beyond  the  Tigris.  In  a 
broad  plain  near  the  village 
of  Gaugame'la,  and  thirty 

BATTLE  OP  "AKBELA"  miles  /est    °*    Arbe>1*>    ** 

came  face  to  face  with  the 

(For  letters,  see  p.  231)  .  . 

army    ot    the    great    king. 

Here  was  to  be  fought  the  battle  which  was  to  decide  the  fate 
of  Persia.  Since  his  defeat  at  Issus,  Darius  had  gathered  an 
immense  armament  which  rivaled  that  of  Xerxes, — a  million 
infantry,  forty  thousand  cavalry,  two  hundred  scythed 
chariots,  and  fifteen  elephants.  To  meet  this  host  Alexander 
had  now  an  army  of  forty  thousand  infantry  and  seven  thou- 
sand cavalry.  His  attack  began  with  a  cavalry  charge  toward 
the  enemy's  left;  and  this  he  suddenly  changed  and  directed  in 
the  form  of  a  wedge  against  the  center,  where  Darius  himself 
was  urging  on  his  troops.  The  frightened  king  fled;  his  army 
became  demoralized;  while  the  rest  of  Alexander's  troops 
pressed  forward  and  gained  a  complete  victory.  The  battle  at 
:  la ii Pamela — usually  called  the  "battle  of  Arbela" — sealed 


P  E  R  S  I  A  N  S 


THE    EMPIRE    OF    ALEXANDER  235 

the  doom  of  the  empire.  Alexander  then  moved  south  to 
Babylon,  which  surrendered  to  him;  next  to  Susa,  which  also 
opened  its  gates;  and  then  to  Persepolis,  which  was  taken  aft.T 
a  feeble  resistance.  These  three  cities  were'the  richest  in  the 
world;  and  by  their  capture  Alexander  came  into  possession 
of  immense  treasures.  He  proclaimed  himself  the  monarch  of 
Persia;  but  he  disgraced  his  name  by  wantonly  firing  with  his 
own  hand  the  magnificent  palace  at  Persepolis. 

The  Far  East;  Battle  of  the  Hydaspes  (326  B.  c.).— Alex- 
ander had  now  traversed  the  western  and  central  provinces  of 
the  Persian  empire.  There  remained  the  far  eastern  provinces, 
which  were  speedily  reduced  to  his  authority.  It  was  during 
this  period  that  Alexander  blackened  his  name  by  two  of  his 
most  infamous  crimes.  The  one  was  the  assassination  of  his 
faithful  general,  Parme'nio,  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy;  the 
other  was  the  murder,  in  a  fit  of  drunken  frenzy,  of  his  dearest 
friend,  Clitus,  who  had  saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  the 
Granicus.  Of  these  dastardly  crimes,  it  can  only  be  said  to 
his  credit  that  he  bitterly  repented  of  them. 

Not  satisfied  with  the  conquest  of  Persia,  Alexander  crossed 
the  Indus,  and  proceeded  through  the  Punjab  to  the  river 
Hydas'pes.  Here,  after  a  severe  engagement,  he  gained  a 
victory  over  the  armies  of  India,  led  by  Porus,  the  most  able 
king  of  the  Far  East.  Struck  by  the  royal  bearing  of  Porus, 
Alexander  made  him  viceroy  of  his  new  Indian  province.  The 
Macedonian  soldiers,  now  wearied  with  years  of  marching  and 
fighting,  refused  to  go  farther  into  unknown  lands;  and  Alex- 
ander was  obliged  to  return.  Down  the  Indus  and  then  west- 
ward through  the  sands  of  the  desert,  his  army  marched  back 
to  Persepolis  and  Susa;  while  his  fleet  under  Nearchus  ex- 
plored anew  the  ancient  water  route  from  the  Indus  to  the  Eu- 
phrates. Alexander  repaired  to  Babylon,  now  the  capital  of 
his  newly  conquered  world. 

Death  and  Character  of  Alexander. — On  his  return  to  Baby- 
lon Alexander  did  not  rest.  He  hoped  to  push  his  conquests 


236 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


into  Arabia,  and  to  give  a  firmer  organization  to  his  Gra3co- 
Oriental  empire.  But  in  a  short  time  he  was  stricken  down  by 
a  fever,  and  died  (323  B.  c.)  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  years  and 
eight  months.  His  last  words  were  a  request  that  the  empire 
be  given  "  to  the  most  worthy."  His  body  was  carried  to 
Egypt,  and  was  buried  at  Alexandria  with  divine  honors. 

What  shall  be  thought  of  Alexander?     This  is  a  question 
upon  which  there  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion.    Some 


SARCOPHAGUS  OF  ALEXANDER  (So- 


have  regarded  him  as  scarcely  more  than  a  brilliant  military 
adventurer.  Others  have  looked  upon  him  as  having  done 
more  for  the  world's  civilization  than  any  oilier  human  being. 
Without  assuming  too  much  couli.lcncc  in  our  own  opinion.  l<-t 
us  look  at  liis  chief  characteristics  as  a  man,  as  a  soldier,  and 
as  a  statesman. 

As  a  man  Alexander  possessed  remarkable  nalurnl  endow- 
ments— a  body  of  great  Ix'Hiilv.  jiirilitv.  ;iml  <iniii':lh.  ciipohlc 
of  extraordinary  feats  of  endurance;  a  mind  of  transcendent 


THE    EMPIRE    OF    ALEXAiNDKU  237 

genius,  of  restless  activit}',  of  wonderful  powers  of  insight,  of 
broad  and  comprehensive  views,  prolific  in  resources,  and  un- 
erring in  the  adjustment  of  means  to  ends;  a  will  power  such 
as  is  rarely  given  to  men,  irresistible  and  untiring;  and  an  emo- 
tional nature  made  up  of  a  strange  mixture  of  generosity  and 
cruelty,  of  self-control  and  self-indulgence,  of  cairn  repose  and 
furious  passion,  capable  of  performing  the  worst  of  crimes, 
and  immediate!}''  giving  way  to  penitence  and  remorse. 

As  a  soldier  he  has  had  scarcely  a  peer  in  the  world's  his- 
tory— a  born  commander  of  men,  a  supreme  master  of  strategy 
and  tactics,  equally  great  in  marches,  sieges,  and  battles. 

As  a  statesman  he  possessed  a  cosmopolitan  breadth  of  view. 
He  believed  that  the  state  should  not  be  narrowed  to  the  limits 
of  a  city  or  small  tcrritoty,  like  that  of  the  Greeks,  but  should 
take  in  all  civilized  peoples.  He  showed  his  broad  ideas  by 
favoring  the  mixture  of  races,  by  encouraging  a  wider  com- 
mercial intercourse,  by  patronizing  the  arts  and  the  sciences, 
by  building  up  new  cities  as  centers  for  the  diffusion  of  Greek 
civilization.  He  adopted,  in  some  respects,  higher  methods  of 
government  than  those  which  had  hitherto  prevailed  in  the 
East.  But  it  rein  a  ins  true  that  the  great  world  enypire  which 
he  carved  out  with  the  sword  fell  to  pieces  almost  immediately 
after  his  death. 

III.     DISSOLUTION  OP  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE 

The  Wars  of  the  Diadochi. — The  years  which  followed  the 
death  of  Alexander  were  years  of  intrigue  and  war  between 
his  different  generals,  who  are  known  in  history  as  the  "  Diad'- 
ochi,"  or  the  successors  of  Alexander.  Various  attempts  were 
made  to  keep  the  empire  together.  At  first  one  of  the  generals, 
Perdic'cas,  tried  to  rule,  and  divided  the  provinces  between 
himself  and  the  other  chieftains;  but  they  refused  to  recognize 
his  authority.  Afterward  another  general,  Antig'orius,  aspired 
to  the  position  of  the  great  king ;  but  he  was  opposed  by  the 


ivr^jp  ISPS.  11. 


238 


THE    EMPIRE    OF    ALEXANDER  239 

other  generals,  who  were  themselves  getting  control  of  various 
provinces.  After  years  of  bitter  strife,  Antigoims  was  de- 
feated and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia  (301  B.  c.) ; 
and  the  victorious  generals  divided  among  themselves  the  frag- 
ments of  the 'empire  that  Alexander  had  established  (map, 
p.  238). 

Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae;  Syria. — Seleucus  was  the  gen- 
eral who  had  already  taken  possession  of  Babylon,  together 
with  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  provinces.  He  now  received 
in  addition  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Asia 
Minor.  He  removed  his  capital  from  Babylon  to  An'tioch 
in  Syria;  but  in  this  way  he  also  weakened  his  hold  upon  his 
eastern  provinces.  He  divided  his  whole  territory  into  seventy- 
two  satrapies,  ruled  not  by  natives  but  by  Greeks  and  Mace- 
donians. The  eastern  provinces  were  intrusted  to  his  son 
Anti'oehus,  who  afterward  succeeded  to  his  father's  throne 
(280  B.  c.).  This  extensive  empire  was  known  as  Syria,  or 
rather  the  "  Kingdom  of  the  Seleu'cidae,"  and  remained  the 
greatest  power  in  Asia  until  the  Roman  conquest  (64  B.  c.). 

Kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies ;  Egypt. — Ptolemy  I.  (Soter)  was 
one  of  Alexander's  generals  who  was  put  in  possession  of  Egypt 
directly  after  the  death  of  the  conqueror,  and  had  maintained 
himself  there  during  the  wars  of  succession.  He  afterward 
added  to  his  kingdom  Palestine,  lower  Syria,  and  Cyprus. 
Under  his  administration  and  that  of  his  successors  Egypt 
rose  to  prosperity  and  greatness.  The  first  Ptolemy  organ- 
ized the  kingdom  into  provinces  based  upon  the  ancient 
divisions  of  the  country;  but  the  civil  and  military  authority 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Greeks  and  Macedonians.  Alexan- 
dria became  the  great  commercial  emporium  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  center  of  the  world's  learning.  Egypt  re- 
mained the  land  of  commerce  and  of  culture  until  it  was 
absorbed  by  the  Roman  empire  (30  B.  c.). 

Kingdoms  in  Asia  Minor. — No  part  of  Alexander's  empire 
was  so  completely  broken  up  after  his  death  as  was  Asia  Minor. 


240  THE   GREEK    WORLD 

Here,  after  some  years,  we  find  the  new  kingdoms  of  Per'- 
gamum,  Bithyn'ia,  and  other  smaller  states,  as  well  as  the 
island  republic  of  Rhodes,  which  included  some  of  the  cities  on 
the  adjacent  coast.  Of  these  several  states  the  kingdom  of 
Pergamum  was  the  most  important,  and  under- its  kings  Eu'- 
menes  I.  and  At'talus  I.  rose  to  a  position  of  considerable 
power  and  influence. 

Macedonia  and  the  Greek  Federations. — After  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Greeks  made  a  freslr*attempt  to  throw  off  the 
power  of  Macedonia.  This  unsuccessful  revolt,  which  is  known 
as  the  "  Lamian  war  "  (323-321  B.  c.),  was  inspired  chiefly  by 
Demosthenes,  who  after  its  disastrous  close  fled  from  Athens 
and  took  his  own  life  by  poison.  After  the  battle  of  Ipsus, 
Macedonia  fell  into  the  hands  of  Cassander,  who  received  it 
as  his  share  of  Alexander's  empire. 

While  weak  successors  of  Cassander  were  trying  to  main- 
tain their  authority  in  Greece,  there  grew  up  two  confed- 
erations which  were  the  most  important  factors  in  later  Greek- 
politics.  In  the  course  of  time  they  came  to  include  the  most 
important  states  of  Greece,  except  Athens  and  Sparta.  One 
of  these  confederations  was  the  ^EtoUan  League  in  central 
Greece.  This  was  originally  a  union  of  warlike  mountain 
tribes  in  ^Etolia,  but  it  gradually  extended  its  power  so  as  to 
include  a  considerable  number  of  states  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Corinth,  and  also  Elis  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

A  body  quite  similar  to  the  JEtolian  League  in  its  organ- 
ization, but  far  superior  in  its  character,  was  the  Acha?an 
League,  which  comprised  most  of  the  states  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. The  power  and  greatness  of  the  Aeha«an  league  were 
due  to  the  famous  leader  Ara'tus,  who  for  a  time  appeared 
as  the  deliverer  of  Greece  from  Macedonian  rule.  In  a 
few  years  the  whole  Peloponnesus,  except  Laconia  and  Elis, 
was  combined  (229  B.  c.)  in  a  single  federal  state — the  most 
advanced  political  organization  that  had  ever  existed  in 
Grc< 


THE    EMPIRE    OF    ALEXANDER 


B»  IRU 


Constitution  of  the  Achaean  League. — The  Achaean  League 
is  often  referred  to  as  the  most  striking  example  of  a  federal 
republic  existing  in  the  ancient  world ;  and  we  should  therefore 
notice  its  principal 
features.  In  the  first 
place,  each  city  re- 
tained its  equality 
and  independence — 
having  its  own  gov- 
ernment, electing  its 
own  officers,  and 
managing  its  own 
local  affairs.  In  the 
next  place,  the  gen- 
eral powers  of  the 
league  were  vested  in 


a  central   or 
government, 
consisted    of 
general      (or 
dent),  and  a 


federal 

This 

(1)     a 

presi- 

council 


THE  /ETOLIAN  AND  ACHJEAN  LEAGUES, 
ABOUT  229  B.  c. 


or  cabinet  of  ten  per- 
sons who  exercised 
administrative  pow- 
ers; (2)  a  boule,  or  senate,  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
persons,  which  prepared  measures  for  the  assembly  and  man- 
aged foreign  affairs;  and  (3)  an  assembly  of  the  whole  people, 
in  which  the  citizens  of  each  city  possessed  one  vote.  The 
assembly  passed  all  federal  laws,  and  elected  all  federal  offi- 
cers. As  the  federal  assembly  was  not  a  representative  body, 
and  as  all  the  citizens  would-  not  be  disposed  to  attend  its 
meetings,  there  was  a  tendency  for  the  league,  although  dem- 
ocratic in  theory,  to  become  aristocratic  in  fact,  and  also 
for  the  "  general "  to  exercise  a  great  influence  in  shaping  its 
policy. 


THE   GREEK    WORLD 

Conflict  between  the  Achaean  League  and  Sparta. — The 

only  state  of  the  Peloponnesus  which  now  remained  outside  of 
the  Greek  federations  was  Sparta.  Once  the  head  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  League,  Sparta  was  now  envious  of  the  growing  in- 
fluence of  the  Achaeans.  She  was  herself  trying  to  recover 
some  of  her  ancient  prestige.  She  had  reformed  and  strength- 
ened her  decaying  institutions  through  the  efforts  of  her  two 
energetic  kings,  Agis  III.  and  Cleomenes  III.  Cleomenes  be- 
lieved that  the  interests  of  Sparta  required  the  breaking  up 
of  the  Achaean  League.  He  appealed  to  the  ^Etolians,  and 
with  their  aid  waged  a  successful  war  against  the  Achaeans. 
The  cause  of  the  Achaeans  seeme'd  about  to  be  lost,  when  their 
general  Aratus-felt  obliged  to  appeal  to  Macedonia  for  aid. 
The  Macedonian  king,  Antigonus,  was  quite  willing  to  inter- 
fere in  this  conflict,  since  he  saw  an  opportunity  to  strengthen 
his  own  authority  in  Greece.  He  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  de- 
feated Cleomenes  in  the  battle  of  Sella'sia  (221  B.  c.),  and 
forced  Sparta  into  submission.  But  the  most  unwelcome  result 
of  this  so-called  "  Cleomenic  war "  was  its  effect  upon  the 
Achaean  League.  The  league  was  originally  organized  to  repel 
the  power  of  Macedonia;  but  now,  by  accepting  an  alliance 
with  Macedonia,  it  was  compelled  to  submit  to  her  authority. 
Macedonia  and  the  -ffitolian  League. — When  Macedonia  had 
defeated  Sparta  and  had  brought  the  Achaeans  into  subjection, 
the  ^Etolians  were  left  the  chief  inde- 
pendent power  in  Hellas.  It  was  now 
their  turn  to  make  an  attempt  to  estab- 
lish their  supremacy  in  Greece.  The 
time  seemed  especially  favorable  on  ac- 
count of  the  recent  death  of  the  warlike 
king  Antigonus,  and  the  accession  of 
PHIIIP  V  the  young  prince  Philip  V.  to  the  Mace- 

donian throne.  The  ^Etolians  accord- 
ingly invaded  the  Peloponnesus  and  made  war  upon  the 
Adia-ans.  They  obtained  the  assistance  of  Sparta,  still  smart- 


THE    EMJMKK    OF    ALEXANDER  243 

ing  under  her  recent  defeat  at  Sellasia.  In  this  war  between 
the  leagues— called  the  "  Social  war"  (220-217  B.  c.)— the 
young  Macedonian  king  felt  bound  to  protect  his  Achaean 
allies.  He  therefore  entered  upon  a  series  of  vigorous  cam- 
paigns by  land  and  sea  against  the  ^Etolians.  He  was  every- 
where successful.  ^Etolia  and  the  whole  of  Greece  seemed 
on  the  point  of  being  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  Mace- 
donian province,  when  Philip  received  the  news  that  the 
Romans  had  been  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by  Han'nibal. 
He  determined  to  make  peace  with  the  Greeks,  and  to  join 
Hannibal  against  the  Romans.  By  the  terms  of  this  peace, 
called  the  Peace  of  Naupactus  (217  B.  c.),  the  two  leagues 
were  compelled  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  to  return  to  the 
condition  in  which  they  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  war — 
that  is,  the  Achaeans  continued  to  recognize  the  authority  of 
the  Macedonian  king;  the  Spartans  withdrew  into  their  own 
territory  of  Laconia;  and  the  ^Etolians  retained  their  inde- 
pendence. 

The  Intervention  of  Borne. — During  this  period  in  which 
the  Grecian  leagues  were  striving  to  resist  the  encroachments 
of  Macedonia,  events  were  taking  place  which  finally  led  to  the 
supremacy  of  a  new  foreign  power  in  Greece.  This  new  power 
was  Rome,  which  was  beginning  to  make  its  influence  felt  to 
the  east  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  was  the  interference  of  the 
Macedonian  king,  Philip  V.,  in  the  war  between  Rome  and 
Hannibal  that  led,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  to  the  interfer- 
ence of  Rome  in  the  affairs  of  Macedonia  and  Greece.  From 
this  time  the  history  of  Greece  became  a  part  of  the  history 
of  Rome.  But  before  we  begin  to  study  the  rise  and  exten- 
sion of  the  Roman  power  and  the  development  of  its  new 
world  empire — which  absorbed  not  only  Macedonia  and 
Greece,  but  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea — we  must  first  get  some  idea  of  that  new  culture  which 
the  ancient  world  received  through  Alexander's  conquests  and 
tlie  work  of  his  successors. 


244  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  RISE  OF  MACEDONIA  UNDER  PHILIP. — The  New  Epoch 
in   Greek  History. — Macedonia  and  the  Greeks. — Accession  and 
Character  of  Philip  II. — The  Aggressions  of  Philip  upon  Greece. 
— Demosthenes    and    Piiiiip. — Battle    of    Chaeronea;    the   End    of 
Greek  Freedom.— The  Congress  of  Corinth;  Death  of  Philip. 

II.  THE    EMPIRE    OF    ALEXANDER. — Beginning    of    Alexander's 
Career. — Asia  Minor;    Battle  of  the  Granicus. — Syria;    Battle  of 
Issus    and    Siege   of    Tyre. — Egypt;    Founding   of   Alexandria.— 
Central    Persia;    Battle    of    Arbela.— The    Far    East;    Battle    of 
the  Hydaspes. — Death  and  Character  of  Alexander. 

III.  DISSOLUTION  OF  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE. — The  Wars  of  the 
Diadochi. — Kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae;    Syria. — Kingdom  of  the 
Ptolemies;    Egypt. — Kingdoms    in    Asia    Minor. — Macedonia   and 
the  Greek  Federations. — Constitution   of  the  Achaean   League. — 
Conflict   between   the   Achaean   League   and    Sparta. — Macedonia 
and  the  ^Etolian  League. — The  Intervention   of  Rome. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Curteis,  Ch.  3,  "Macedonia  and  Hellasat  Philip's  Accession"  (10).1 
Oman,  Ch.  42,  "Philip  and  Demosthenes";   Ch.  43,  "The  End  of 

Grecian   Freedom";    Ch.   44,    "Alexander   the   Great"    (10). 
Bury,  Ch.  16,  "The  Rise  of  Macedonia'';   Ch.  17,  "The  Conquest 

of  Persia"    (10). 
Wheeler,    Alexander,    Ch.    12,    "The    Persian    Empire";    Ch.    31, 

"Death  of  Alexander"  (27). 
Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  8,  "Alexander  and  His  Successors"   (10). 

-  Greek  Life,  Ch.  18   (Hellenism,  society,  literature,  art)  (10). 

-  Alexander's    Empire,    Ch.    8,    "The    Invasion    of    the    Celts 
[Gauls]  and  its  Consequences"   (10). 

Schuckburgh,  Ch.  22,  'VKlulian  and  Achaean  Leagues"  (10). 

Cm-tins.   Vol.  V.,  Bk.  VII.,  Ch.  3,  "Athens  and  Philip"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  26,  "Concluding  Years  of  Alexander's  Reign"; 
Index,  "^tolian  League,"  "Acha  an  League"  (10). 

Dodge,  Alexander,  Ch.  12  (military  system  of  Philip  and  Alex- 
ander); Ch.  48,  "The  Man  and  the  Soldier"  (27). 

Freeman,  Essay,  "Alexander  the  Great"  (3). 

Bredif,  Demosthenes,  Ch.  2,  "Philip— the  Athenians"  (the  Athens 
of  Demosthenes)  (27). 

Plutarch,  "Demosthenes,"  "Alexander,"  "Aratus,"  "Airis," 
"Cleomenes"  (20). 

Arrian,  Bk.  II.,  Chs.  18-24  (siege  of  Tyre);  Bk.  ITT.,  Ch.  1  (con- 
quest of  Egypt);  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  8  (murder  of  Clitus);  Bk.  VIL, 
Ch.  1  (Alex  imlcr's  plans);  Chs.  8-11  (mutiny  of  Alexander's 
armv)  (17). 

DemostlM-n.-s.  Orations,  "The  First  Olynthiac."  "The  First 
Philippic"  (17). 

'The    tiirnrc    in    p.-in-nt  ln-sis    rofcrs    to    Ilic    number   of   the    topic    in    (lie 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  fouml. 


CHAPTER    XVI 


THE  NEW  GR^ECO-ORIENTAL,  OR  HELLENISTIC,  CULTURE 
I.     HELLENIC  AND  HELLENISTIC  CULTURE 

Hellenic  Culture  in  Greece. — In  taking  a  brief  review  of  the 
general  culture  which  had  its  beginning  in  the  Macedonian 
period,  we  may  first  look  at  Greece  itself,  where  the  Hellenic 
spirit  was  least  affected  by 
Oriental  influences.  Athens 
was  still  the  center  of  Grecian 
life  and  thought.  Here  flour- 
ished the  men  who  represented 
better  than  elsewhere  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  old  Hellenic 
spirit.  Here  Demosthenes 
and  ^Es'chines  continued  to 
deliver  their  orations  in  pure 
Attic  Greek.  Here  Aristotle 
continued  £o  write  his  works 
on  philosophy  and  science. 
Here  comedy  continued  t  o 
flourish  in  the  writings  of 
Menan'der;  and  painting  sur- 
vived in  the  famous  portraits 

and  other  works  produced  by  Apel'les.  These  men  represented 
the  old  Hellenic  culture — a  culture  which  had  been  developing 
in  Greece  since  the  days  of  the  Persian  wars,  but  which  was 
destined  to  lose  its  Attic  purity  by  contact  with  the  thought 
and  spirit  of  the  East. 

245 


MENANDER 


246  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

Post-Aristotelian  Philosophy. — One  of  the  evidences  of  the 
influence  of  the  East  upon  the  native  culture  of  Greece  is 
seen  in  the  growth  of  certain  new  schools  of  philosophy  which 
followed  Aristotle.  These  schools  were  a  protest,  not  only 
against  the  old  religious  ideas  of  the  Greeks,  but  also  against 
the  foreign  superstitions  which  were  coming  into  Greece  from 
the  East.  The  foremost  of  these  schools  were  the  Epicure'an 
and  the  Stoic.  The  Epicurean  school  took  its  name  from 
Epicu'rus,  who  was  born  at  Samos  and  had  taught  in  the  cities 
of  Asia  Minor  before  he  came  to  Athens.  Epicurus  tried  to 
rescue  men  from  the  influence  of  superstition  and  the  old 
mythological  ideas  concerning  the  gods.  He  taught  that  men 
should  be  influenced,  not  by  the  fear  of  the  gods,  but  by  the 
desire  to  obtain  the  highest  happiness — not  the  passing  pleas- 
ure of  the  hour,  but  the  permanent  happiness  of  a  lifetime. 
The  Stoic  philosophy,  which  was  a  higher  system  than  the 
Epicurean,  was  founded  by  Zeno.  He  taught  at  Athens  in  a 
portico  on  the  Agora  (Sto'a  Pcec'ile,  or  Painted  Porch),  from 
which  his  school  received  its  name.  He  also  rejected  the  pre- 
vailing mythological  notions,  and  believed  that  the  world  is 
governed  by  a  Universal  Eeason  which  is  revealed  in  the  laws 
of  nature.  According  to  Zeno,  men  should  live,  not  to  ap- 
pease the  gods,  but  to  conform  to  the  highest  "  law  of  nature." 
He  also  sympathized  with  the  broader  ideas  of  the  age,  and 
believed  that  men's  duties  should  not  be  limited  to  their  own 
city  or  even  to  Greece,  but  should  extend  to  all  mankind. 

In  these  new  schools  of  philosophy  we  may  see  some  of  the 
influences  of  the  new  period — the  influx  of  Oriental  supersti- 
tion which  these  schools  tried  to  withstand,  and  also  the  desire 
to  enter  into  the  new  world  spirit  which  followed  the  break- 
ing down  of  national  barriers.  The  new  philosophy  taught 
that  every  one  should  be,  not  simply  a  member  of  his  own  city, 
but  a  "  citizen  of  the  world." 

The  Spread  of  Hellenism  in  the  East. — 1»ut  the  most  inter- 
esting feature  of  this  age  is  not  so  much  the  influence  of  Orien- 


HELLENISTIC    CULTURE  247 

tal  ideas  upon  the  old  culture  of  Greece,  a>  tin-  diffusion  of 
the  Hellenic  culture  into  other  purls  of  the  world — that  is,  the 
"  Hellenizing  "  of  the  Orient.  This  was  due,  not  only  to  the 
work  of  Alexander  himself,  but  to  the  continuance  of  his  policy 
by  his  successors.  Like  him.  they  also  planted  new  cities; 
placed  over  them  Greek  and  Macedonian  governors;  encouraged 
Greek  colonization;  introduced  the  customs  of  Greek  life;  fa- 
vored the  use  of  the  Greek  language;  and  patronized  Greek 
learning  and  art.  These  new  cities  became  new  centers  of 
Greek  civilization,  and  in  some  respects  they  surpassed  the 
older  cities  of  Greece.  The  accumulated  wealth  of  the  East 
was  used  to  construct  splendid  works  of  art,  fashioned  upon 
Greek  models — temples,  colonnades,  sculptures,  market  places, 
gardens.  In  such  ways  as  these  the  Greeks  became  the  citizens 
of  the  world,  and  the  culture  of  Greece  became  the  heritage  of 
other  people. 

Meaning  of  Hellenistic  Culture. — As  we  consider  this  great 
movement  by  which  the  Greek  language  and  civilization  were 
gradually  extended  over  the  East,  there  is  one  important  point 
which  should  be  kept  in  mind.  This  is  the  fact  that  the 
culture  which  had  been"  developed  by  the  Greeks  themselves 
was  considerably  modified  by  being  taken  up  by  the  people  of 
foreign  countries.  For  example,  the  Greek  language,  when 
spoken  by  a  Syrian,  a  Jew,  or  an  Egyptian,  would  not  longer 
remain  the  pure  language  of  Sophocles  or  Plato,  but  would 
acquire  features  foreign  to  the  Attic  tongue.  So  the  architec- 
ture and  sculpture  of  Greece  would  have  impressed  upon  them 
a  certain  Oriental  character  and  spirit,  which  would  distin-. 
guish  them  from  the  more  refined  art  of  Phidias  and  Prax- 
iteles. To  this  Greek  culture  modified  by  Oriental  influences 
we  apply  the  term  "  Hellenistic,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
purer  Greek  culture  of  the  Greeks  themselves,  which  we  call 
"  Hellenic."  The  Hellenistic  culture,  then,  means  the  lan- 
guage and  civilization  of  the  people  of  the  East  who  adopted 
the  speech  and  culture  of  the  Greeks.  It  is,  in  short,  the 


248 


THE    GREEK    WORLD 


form  of  Hellenism.  The  Greek  influence  ex- 
tended into  central  Asia  and  as  far  east  as  the  Indus;  but  the 
chief  seats  of  the  Hellenistic  culture  were  the  countries  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean — Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 

Egypt. 

II.     HELLENISTIC  CULTURE  IN  ASIA  MINOR 

Pergamum  as  a  Center  of  Culture. — The  chief  seat  of  the 
new  civilization  in  Asia  Minor  was  the  city  of  Pergamum — 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  same  name.  The  kings  of 


THE  GREAT  ALTAR  AT  PERGAMUM  (Restoration) 

this  country  came  to  be  wealthy  and  somewhat  powerful  mon- 
archs.  They  gained  an  enviable  reputation  by  ending  the 
depredations  of  the  Gauls — a  barbarian  people  who  in  the  third 
century  invaded  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  were  finally 
settled  in  the  province  of  Gala'tia,  in  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor.  This  victory  over  the  Gauls  was  the  heroic  event  in 
tin-  history  of  Pergamum,  and  was  commemor;itr<l  in  ni.-my 
works  of  art. 

Architecture  and  Sculpture  of  Pergamum. — Tli<>  }<\u^<  <>f 
Pergamum    adorned   their   capital    with   splendid   buildings, 


HELLENISTIC    CULTURE  249 

which  rivaled  the  architecture  of  Athens.  The  central  archi- 
tectural feature  of  the  city  was  a  vast  altar  dedicated  to  Zeus 
Soter  (the  Savior).  This  was  built  by  Eumenes  II.  to  com- 
memorate the  victory  over  the  barbarian  Gauls,  and  the  divine 
assistance  then  given.  The  altar  was  situated  on  the  summit 
of  the  acropolis,  said  to  have  been  more  than  eight  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  was  adorned  with  elaborate 
sculptures  and  especially  with  a  gigantic  frieze,  on  which  was 


THE  DYING  GAUL 

represented  the  battle  between  the  gods  and  the  barbarian 
giants.  This  altar  with  its  decorations  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  marvels  of  the  ancient  world.  We  have  preserved  to  us 
a  valuable  relic  of  the  Pergamean  art,  and  also  of  the  Gallic 
invasion,  in  the  well-known  copy  of  the  Dying  Gaul  (usually 
called  the  "Dying  Gladiator").  This  is  worth  our  careful 
study  as  a  specimen  of  Hellenistic  art,  showing  a  departure 
from  the  purest  Greek  models  in  the  realistic  representation 
of  a  wounded  barbarian  warrior. 


250 


THE    GKEEK    WORLD 


Literature  and  Science  of  Pergamum. — This  city  was  a  cen- 
ter not  only  of  art,  but  also  of  learning.  Although  it  made  no 
important  contributions  to  literature,  it  was  distinguished  for 
a  remarkable  collection  of  literary  works — a  library  of  two 
hundred  thousand  volumes,  which  rivaled  the  more  renowned 
collection  at  Alexandria.  Books,  or  rather  manuscripts,  had 
previously  been  written  upon  Egyptian  papyrus.  But  as  the 
exportation  of  this  material  was  prohibited  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  kings  of  Pergamum  adopted  in  its  place  the  skins 
of  animals  (called  Pergamence  chartce,  from  which  comes  our 
word  "  parchment ").  The  city  of  Pergamum  also  became  the 
home  of  many  scientific  men, — grammarians,  mathematicians, 
natural  philosophers,  and  physicians, — of  whom  many  ac- 
quired great  renown,  as 
Cra'tes  in  philology,  and 
Galen  in  medicine.  • 

The  School  of  Rhodes. 
— Another  important  cen- 
ter of  Hellenistic  culture 
in  Asia  Minor  was 
Rhodes,  famous  for  its 
school  of  rhetoric  and"  its 
code  of  maritime  law. 
The  art  of  Rhodes  reveals 
the  same  Oriental  influ- 
ences that  appeared  at 
Pergamum.  This  is  seen 
in  the  taste  for  colossal 
figures  and  impressive 
groups  of  statuary.  The 
famous  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  a  statue  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  high,  was  reckoned  as  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  world.  The  most  important  example  of  Rhodian 
sculpture  that  remains  to  us  is  the  group  of  Laoc'oon,  a  priest 


LAOCOON  AND  HIS  SONS 


HELLENISTIC    CULTURE 


251 


of  Apollo,  and  his  sons,  who  were  destroyed  by  serpents  sent 
by  Athena.     The  agony  depicted  upon  the  face  of  the  priest, 


HEAD  OF  THE  APOLLO  BELVEDERE 

though  wonderfully  expressive,  is  far  removed  from  the  calm 
repose  which  marks  the  purer  Hellenic  art. 

Examples  of  Pure  Hellenic  Art. — As  we  study  the  art  of 
what  is  called  the  "  Hellenistic  period,"  we  should  bear  in  mind 
the  fact  that  not  all  the  works  produced  at  this  time  show  in  an 
equal  degree  the  influence  of  Orientalism.  Some  works  show 


252 


THE   GftEEK   WORLD 


this  influence  to  a  greater,  and  some  to  a  less  extent.  Before 
we  leave  the  shores  of  the  zEgean,  we  should  therefore  notice 
at  least  two  examples  of  the  art  of  this  period  which  preserve 
in  the  greatest  degree  the  pure  Hellenic  spirit,  and  to  which 
is  given  a  high  rank  among  the  statues  of  the  world.  One 
of  these  is  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  which  is  now  generally  as- 
signed to  this  period,  although  the  place  where  it  was  produced 

is  not  known.  So  nearly 
does  it  approach  the  per- 
fect Greek  style,  that  it 
has  been  said  that  in  it 
"we  see  Lysippus  in  the 
form  and  Praxiteles  in 
the  face"  (Perry).  The 
other  example  of  the  pure 
Hellenic  art  of  this 
period,  and  one  which  is 
perhaps  still  more  re- 
markable, is  the  Aphro- 
dite found  on  the  island 
of  Melos,  and  usually 
called  the  "  Venus  of 
Melos/'  The  faces  of 
these  two  marble  statues 
express  the  Greek  ideal  of 

perfect  masculine  and  feminine  beauty.  In  them  we  see  that 
grace  of  form  and  calmness  of  spirit  which  the  Greeks  re- 
garded as  essential  to  the  purest  art. 


HEAD  OF  THE  APHRODITE  OF  MELOS 


III.     HELLENISTIC  CULTURE  IN  SYRIA 

The  Civilization  of  the  Seleucidae. — The  Seleucidae  were  the 
most  zealous  followers  of  Alexander  in  the  founding  of  m-w 
cities.  These  new  towns,  which  numbered  more  than  seventy, 
became  the  active  centers  of  Greek  influence.  They  were 


HELLENISTIC    CULTURE  253 

colonized  by  Greeks.  In  them  the  Greek  language  was  spoken; 
Greek  methods  of  city  government  were  adopted;  the  commer- 
cial spirit  of  the  Greeks  was  present;  and  Greek  buildings  were 
erected.  But  these  Greek  towns,  springing  up  by  the  side  of 
the  older  Asiatic  cities,  felt  the  influence  of  Oriental  cus- 
toms and  ideas.  The  Greeks  absorbed  the  Oriental  love  of 
wealth  and  passion  for  luxury,  and  developed  a  form  of  life 
which  was  neither  purely  Greek  nor  purely  Eastern,  but  a 
mingling  of  the  two — a  composite  culture  in  which  the  Orien- 
tal features  were  improved  and  the  Hellenic  features  debased. 

Antioch  as  a  Center  of  Culture. — The  city  which  presented 
the  most  conspicuous  type  of  this  Grneco-Oriental  or  Hellen- 
istic culture  in  Syria  was  Antioch,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 
The  original  city  was  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  (Nica'tor),  and 
named  in  honor  of  his  father  Antiochus.  Here  were  gathered 
the  people  of  many  nations;  but  the  prevailing  form  of  culture 
was  Greek,  imbued  with  the  Oriental  taste  for  magnificence. 
The  buildings  glistened  with  precious  stones  and  ornaments 
of  gold.  The  broad,  regular  streets  were  lined  with  the  most 
splendid  porticoes,  colonnades,  and  statues.  Beyond  the  walls 
of  the  city  was  the  cypress  grove  of  Daphne,  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  attractive  places  in  the  world.  It  contained  the  tree 
of  Daphne,  into  which  this  nymph,  according  to  tradition,  was 
changed  when  fleeing  from  Apollo.  The  grove  was  reached 
by  a  road  passing  through  beautiful  villas  and  gardens  en- 
livened with  fountains  and  medicinal  springs.  It  was  adorned 
with  stately  temples,  baths,  and  places  of  amusement.  In  the 
temple  of  Apollo  was  a  colossal  statue  of  that  god,  said 
to  rival  the  Zeus  of  Phidias.  All  this  fondness  for  luxury 
shows  that  the  Greeks,  while  exercising  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  East,  were  themselves  coming  under  the  spell  of 
Orientalism. 

Attempt  to  Hellenize  the  Jews. — The  only  opposition  to  the 
Hellenizing  movement  in  western  Asia  appeared  in  Judea. 
Here  the  people  were  attached  to  their  ancient  language  and 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. 15 


254  THE    GREEK    WORLD 

religion.  It  is  said  that  Alexander  offered  strong  inducements 
for  the  Jews  to  settle  in  Alexandria,  where  they  could  retain 
their  religion  unmolested.  Many  of  them  took  advantage  of 
this  offer;  but  while  preserving  their  own  religion,  they  could 
not  help  imbibing  much  of  the  Hellenistic  spirit.  In  Judea 
itself,  however,  the  people  succeeded  in  resisting  these  foreign 
influences.  It  is  true  that  the  Jews  in  Palestine  sometimes 
affected  the  Greek  culture,  by  learning  to  speak  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  adopting  Greek  names;  but  the  mass  of  the  people 
clung  to  their  Hebrew  language  and  customs.  When  Palestine 
passed  from  the  control  of  Egypt  to  that  of  Syria,  a  systematic 
attempt  was  made  by  the  Syrian  king,  Antiochus  IV.  (Epiph'- 
anes),  to  force  upon  the  Jews  the  Greek  language  and  customs, 
including  the  Greek  religion.  This  was  accompanied  by  a 
most  unjust  and  bitter  persecution.  It  aroused  a  national  re- 
volt, which  ended  only  with  the  establishment  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Jewish  nation. 

IV.     HELLENISTIC  CULTURE  IN  EGYPT 

Alexandria  as  a  Center  of  Culture. — In  Egypt  we  find  the 
most  important  intellectual  center  of  the  Hellenistic  world. 
The  Ptolemies  did  not,  like  the  Seleucida,  attempt  to  bring 
the  whole  kingdom  under  Greek  influence  by  the  erection  of 
many  new  cities.  They  rather  attempted  to  concentrate  into 
a  single  focus  the  various  elements  of  Greek  culture.  This 
focus  was  the  city  of  Alexandria,  founded  by  the  great  con- 
queror himself.  It  was  first  of  all  a  commercial  center,  tak- 
ing the  place  of  Tyre  as  the  important  emporium  of  the  "Mr< li- 
te rranean.  It  came  to  be  the  most  cosmopolitan  city  of  the 
world,  with  a  population  of  nearly  a  million  inhabitants,  made 
up  of  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Macedonians,  Jews,  and  people  from 
nearly  every  Asiatic  country.  The  ideas  of  various  people 
found  here  a  common  meeting  place.  The  Ptolemies  respected 
the  religion  of  the  Egyptians  and  that  of  the  Jews,  while  cling- 


HELLENISTIC    CULTURE  255 

ing  to  their  own  Grecian  gods.  But  these  various  religions 
were  often  mingled  with  one.  another.  The  god  Sera'pis,  for 
example,  was  a  deity  in  whom  were  united  the  character  of  the 
Greek  Zeus  and  that  of  the  Egyptian  Osiris.  Though  the  coun- 
try surrounding  Alexandria  was  not  attractive,  the  architec- 
ture of  the  city  united  Greek  taste  with  Oriental  splendor. 
There  were  many  public  buildings,  such  as  theaters,  ampin- 
theaters,  race  courses,  and  sanctuaries;  but  the  most  imposing 
of -these  was  the  Serape'um,  the  temple  of  the  common  god 
Serapis.  • 

Museum  and  Library  of  Alexandria. — Alexandria  obtained 
its  highest  renown  as  the  home  of  scholars.  In  this  city  we 
find  blended  the  Greek  and  the  Egyptian  taste  for  philosophy 
and  science.  The  most  famous  work  of  the  Ptolemies  was  the 
establishment  of  the  Museum  and  the  Library.  The  Museum 
was  a  collection  of  buildings  dedicated  to  the  Muses,  and  might 
not  inaptly  be  called  a  "  University."  Here  were  gathered  the 
philosophers,  scholars,  and  students  of  all  countries — Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  Judea,  Babylon,  and  even  India.  It  is  said  that 
at  one  time  as  many  as  fourteen  thousand  students  found 
a  home  in  Alexandria.  In  connection  with  the  Museum  were 
botanical  and  zoological  gardens,  dissecting  rooms,  and  astro- 
nomical observatories.  But  the  most  famous  of  these  buildings 
was  the  great  Alexandrian  Library,  containing  over  five  hun- 
dred thousand  manuscripts.  It  was  the  desire  of  the  Ptolemies 
to  possess  an  authentic  copy  of  every  existing  work  of  Greek 
literature.  This  library  was  the  most  extensive  collection  of 
manuscripts  in  the  ancient  world. 

The  literature  and  Scholarship  of  Alexandria. — The  kind 
of  literary  work  done  at  Alexandria  was  less  creative  than 
critical.  The  literature  which  was  produced  at  this  time  was 
mostly  elegiac  and  lyric  poetry.  One  poet  of  this  period  holds 
the  first  rank  among  the  pastoral  poets  of  the  world;  this 
was  Theoc'ritus.  Although  born  at  Syracuse,  he  lived  at  Alex- 
andria, His  "  Idylls,"  describing  the  beauties  of  nature,  have 


256  THE    GKEEK    WORLD 

been  admired  by  all  people,  and  perhaps  approach  more  nearly 
than  any  other  literature  of  this  period  to  the  pure  aesthetic 
spirit  of  the  early  Greeks.  History  also  was  cultivated  by 
Mant'tho,  an  Egyptian  priest,  who  wrote  the  "Chronicles  of 
Egypt";  while  the  Babylonian  Berosus  was  doing  a  similar 
kind  of  work  for  Babylonian  history.  But  the  most  thorough 
literary  scholarship  of  Alexandria  was  devoted  to  the  critical 
study  of  the  ancient  Greek  texts.  Aristar'chus  may  be  called 
the  father  of  textual  criticism  and  the  science  of  grammar. 
Translations  of  important  works  of  literature  also  formed  a 
part  of  the  work  of  these  Alexandrian  scholars.  The  most 
noted  of  these  translations  was  the  Sep'tuagint,  a  Greek  ver- 
sion of  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 

The  Alexandrian  Science  and  Philosophy. — Alexandria  was 
also  a  meeting  place  for  Greek  and  Oriental  science;  and  a  great 
impulse  was  given  in  the  direction  of  a  more  strictly  scientific 
method.  There  are  many  famous  names  of  scientists  connected 
with  this  seat  of  ancient  learning.  Euclid  was  the  founder  of 
our  modern  geometry;  Modern  astronomy  has  grown  out  of 
the  works  of  Hippar'chus  and  Ptolemy  (Claudius  PtolemaBus). 
Eratos'thenes  was  the  first  to  give  a  mathematical  estimate  of 
the  size  of  the  earth.  Archime'des,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  came 
here  to  study ;  he  was  a  noted  mathematician,  and  made  bril- 
liant discoveries  in  physical  and  mechanical  science.  In  Alex- 
andria, too,  we  see  in  later  times  a  remarkable  mingling  of  the 
philosophical  ideas  of  the  world — Greek  idealism,  Jewish 
monotheism,  Oriental  mysticism,  and  afterward  even  Christian 
theology.  But  the  complex  systems  which  grew  up  under  such 
names  as  "  Neo-Platonism  "  and  "  Gnosticism,"  we  need  not 
attempt  to  explain.  For  us  they  simply  illustrate,  like  the 
other  phases  of  Alexandrian  culture,  the  various  ideas  and 
forms  of  thought  resulting  from  the  union  of  the  Greek  and 
the  Oriental  world  which  followed  the  conquests  of  Alexander. 

Influence  of  Greek  Civilization. — As  we  look  back  over  the 
history  of  Greece  and  its  influence  upon  other  countries  we 


HELLENISTIC    CULTURE  257 

may  understand  the  important  place  which  it  occupied  in  the 
growth  of  ancient  civilization.  We  have  seen  Greece  at  first 
the  heir  of  the  Orient,  developing  an  early  culture  under  for- 
eign influences,  which  soon  passed  away,  leaving  only  the 
memories  and  monuments  of  the  Mycenaean  age.  We  have  seen 
her  afterward  showing  a  spirit  of  freedom  and  independence, 
— in  politics,  in  literature,  in  art,  in  philosophy, — breaking 
away  from  the  servile  spirit  and  despotic  authority  of  the  East, 
and  developing  in  the  age  of  Pericles  a  culture  far  superior 
to  that  of  any  earlier  people.  We  have  also  seen  her  in  her 
political  decline  and  fall,  still  maintaining  her  intellectual 
supremacy  and  scattering  the  fruits  of  her  culture  among  the 
various  peoples  with  whom  she  was  brought  into  contact.  We 
must,  therefore,  look  upon  the  influence  of  Greece  as  one  of 
the  most  powerful  factors  in  the  civilization  of  the  ancient 
world,  and  we  should  also  remember  that  this  beneficial  influ- 
ence was  not  limited  to  the  countries  of  the  old  world,  but 
has  continued  down  to  our  own  day.  Whatever  flaws  we  may 
have  discovered  in  the  old  Greek  character,  we  should  not  fail 
to  appreciate  that  peculiar  type  of  intellectual  and  assthetic 
culture  which  was  developed  by  the  people  of  Hellas  and 
which  forms  one  of  the  great  bequests  of  antiquity  to  modern 
times. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB    REVIEW 

I.  HELLENIC  AND  HELLENISTIC  CULTURE. — Hellenic  Culture  in 
Greece. — Post-Aristotelian   Philosophy. — Spread  of  Hellenism  in 
the  East. — Meaning-  of  Hellenistic  Culture. 

II.  HELLENISTIC   CULTURE    IN    ASIA    MINOR. — Pergamum   as   a 
Center  of  Culture. — Architecture  and  Sculpture  of  Pergamum. — 
Literature  and  Science  of  Pergamum.— The  School  of  Rhodes.— 
Examples  of  Pure  Hellenic  Art. 

III.  HELLENISTIC  CULTURE  IN  SYRIA. — The  Civilization  of  the 
Seleucida?.— Antioch  as  a  Center  of  Culture.— Attempt  to  Hellen- 
ize  the  Jews. 

IV.  HELLENISTIC  CULTURE  IN  EGYPT. — Alexandria  as  a  Center 
of  Culture. — Museum  and  Library  of  Alexandria. — The  Literature 
and  Scholarship  of  Alexandria. — Alexandrian  Science  and  Philos- 
ophy.— Influence  of  Greek  Civilization. 


258  THE  GREEK  WORLD 

BEFEBENCES  FOB  BEADING 

Ducoudray,  Ch.   10,   "The  Diffusion   of  the  Greek  Genius"    (I).1 
Felton,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  275-278,  "Spread  of  Hellenism"   (10). 
Mahaffy,   Survey,  Ch.   9,  "The  Hellenistic   World"    (10). 

-  Greek  Life,  Ch.  9,  "Alexandria   and  its  Rivals"    (10). 

-  Alexander's  Empire,  Ch.   10,   "The  Golden  Age  of  Hellen- 
ism";   Ch.    20,    "Commerce   and    Culture   of   Peigamum   and 
Rhodes"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  14,  "Culture  of  the  Greek  World,  300-220 
B.  c."  (10). 

Gardner,  P.,  Ch.  15,  "Successors  of  Alexander  and  Greek  civiliza- 
tion" (10). 

Gardner,  E.  A.,  Handbook,  Ch.  5,  "The  Hellenistic  Age"  (12). 

Freeman,  Essay,  "The  Macedonian  Period"    (3). 

Tarbell,  Ch.  10,  "Hellenistic  Period  of  Greek  Sculpture"   (12). 

Butcher,  pp.  1-40,  "What  We  Owe  to  the  Greeks"  (10). 

'The   figure   in   parenthesis   refers   to  the  number  of  the  topic  in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE  ROMAN  WORLD 

PERIOD  I,     BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  ROMAN   STATE 
(753-343  B,  0.) 


CHAPTER    XVII 

ITALY  AND  THE  TKADITIONAL  ORIGIN  OF  ROME 
I.  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ITALY 

Transition  to  Roman  History. — In  our  study  of  the  history 
of  the  ancient  world  we  have  considered  the  early  stages  of 
civilization  among  the  peoples  of  the  Orient,  and  also  the 
great  advancement  made  by  the  Greeks  in  the  way  of  intel- 
lectual and  esthetic  culture.  We  are  now  to  consider  the 
work  performed  by  another  people  in  promoting  the  progress 
of  mankind.  This  people  was  the  Eomans.  It  was  the  Ro-  ^ 
mans  who  supplied  what  was  lacking  in  all  the  other  great  i 
nations  of  antiquity — the  genius  for  political  organization.  It/ 
is  true  that  we  have  seen  great  empires  established  in  the  East ; 
but  these  empires  were  founded  only  upon  conquest,  and  did 
not  incorporate  their  subjects  as  a  part  of  the  state.  It  is 
also  true  that  the  Greeks  developed  a  great  love  of  liberty ;  but 
their  love  of  liberty  was  so  great  as  to  prevent  them  from  form- 
ing a  political  union  with  a  common  national  authority.  The 
Romans,  on  the  other  hand,  not  only  conquered  the  most  im- 
portant countries  of  the  old  world;  they  also  made  of  these 

259 


260 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


different  countries  one  united  people  organized  under  a  com- 
mon government  and  a  common  system  of  law. 

In  our  study  of  the  history  of  Rome  there  are  three  things 
which  we  should  constantly  keep  in  mind.  In  the  first  place, 
we  should  notice  the  successive  steps  by  which  the  Roman 
territory  was  enlarged — expanding  from  a  small  spot  on  the 


MOUNTAINS, 
RIVERS,  AND 
DIVISIONS  OF 
ITALY 


Tiber,    until    it    took 
in  the  whole  peninsula  of 
Italy,  and  finally  all  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
In    the    next    place,    we    should 
notice   the   methods   by   which   the 

various  conquered  peoples  were  gradually  incorporated  into  the 
state,  and  the  way  in  which  the  government  was  modified  and 
strengthened  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  growing  nation. 
Finally,  we  should  notice  how  the  ideas  and  customs  of  the 


ITALY    AND    THE    ORKilN    OK    Ko.YIE 

conquered  countries  were  taken  up  and  welded  together  into  a 
new  and  wider  civilization. 

The  Italian  Peninsula. — The  study  of  Roman  history  prop- 
erly begins  with  the  geography  of  Italy ;  because  it  was  in  Italy 
that  the  Roman  people  had  their  origin,  and  it  was  here  that 
they  began  their  great  career.  It  was  only  when  the  Romans 
had  conquered  and  organized  Italy  that  they  were  able  to  con- 
quer and  govern  the  world.  The  position  of  the  Italian  penin- 
sula was  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  Roman  power.  It  was 
situated  almost  in  the  center  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the 
shores  of  which  had  flourished  the  great  nations  of  antiquity- 
Egypt,  Phcenicia,  Carthage,  Greece,  and  Macedonia.  By  con- 
quering Italy,  Rome  thus  obtained  a  commanding  position 
among  the  nations  of  the  ancient  world.  As  the  peninsula 
projects  southward  into  the  Mediterranean  it  bends  toward 
the  east,  so  that  its  southern  coasts  afforded  an  easy  access 
to  the  civilized  peoples  of  Greece.  The  eastern  shores  of  the 
peninsula,  washed  by  the  Adriatic  Sea,  with  few  bays  and 
harbors,  were  not  favorable  to  the  early  progress  of  the  people ; 
while  the  western  coasts,  bordering  upon  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
with  their  numerous  indentations  furnished  greater  opportu- 
nities for  commerce  and  a  civilized  life. 

The  Mountains  and  Rivers  of  Italy. — There  are  two  im- 
portant mountain  chains  which  belong  to  Italy,  the  Alps  and 
the  Ap'ennines.  (1)  The  Alps  form  a  semicircular  boundary 
on  the  north  and  afford  a  formidable  barrier  against  the 
neighboring  countries  of  Europe.  Starting  from  the  sea  at 
its  western  extremity,  this  chain  stretches  toward  the  north 
for  about  150  miles,  when  it  rises  in  the  lofty  peak  of  Mt. 
Blanc,  15,000  feet  in  height;  and  then  continues  its  course  in 
an  easterly  direction  for  about  330  miles,  approaching  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  disappearing  along  its  coast.  It 
is  crossed  by  several  passes,  through  which  foreign  peoples 
have  sometimes  found  their  way  into  the  peninsula.  (2)  The 
Apennines,  beginning  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Alps, 


262  THE   ROMAN   WORLD 

extend  through  the  whole  length  of  the  peninsula,  forming  the 
backbone  of  Italy.  From  this  main  line  are  thrown  off  numer- 
ous spurs  and  scattered  peaks.  Sometimes  the  Apennines  have 
furnished  to  Eome  a  kind  of  barrier  against  invaders  from  the 
north. 

The  most  important  river  of  Italy  is  the  Po,  which,  with 
its  hundred  tributaries,  drains  the  fertile  valley  in  the  north, 
lying  between  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines.  In  the  peninsula 
proper  the  eastern  and  western  slopes  are  drained  by  many 
streams,  the  largest  and  most  noted  of  which  is  the  Tiber,  flow- 
ing into  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea. 

Climate  and  Products.— The  climate  of  Italy  varies  greatly, 
as  we  pass  from  the  north  to  the  south.  In  the  valley  of  the 
Po  the  winters  are  often  severe,  and  the  air  is  chilled  by  the 
neighboring  snows  of  the  Alps.  In  central  Italy  the  climate 
is  mild  and  agreeable,  snow  being  rarely  seen  south  of  the 
Tiber,  except  on  the  ranges  of  the  Apennines;  while  in  south- 
ern Italy  we  approach  a  climate  almost  tropical,  the  land 
being  often  swept  by  the  hot  south  wind,  the  sirocco,  from  the 
plains  of  Africa. 

The  soil  of  Italy  is  generally  fertile,  especially  in  the  plains 
of  the  Po  and  the  fields  of  Campania.  The  staple  products  in 
ancient  times  were  wheat,  the  olive,  and  the  vine.  For  a  long 
time  Italy  took  the  lead  of  the  world  in  the  production  of 
olive  oil  and  wine.  The  production  of  wheat  declined  when 
Kome,  by  her  conquests,  came  into  commercial  relation  with 
more  fertile  countries,  such  as  Egypt. 

The  Divisions  of  Italy. — For  the  purpose  of  convenience 
and  to  aid  us  in  our  future  study,  we  may  divide  ancient 
Italy  into  three  divisions:  northern,  central,  and  southern. 

(1)  Northern  Italy  comprised  the  whole  continental  portion 
from  the  Alps  to  a  line  drawn  along  the  Apeninnes  from  the 
river  Macra  on  the  west  to  the  Ru'bicon  on  the  east.  It  con- 
tained three  distinct  countries :  Liguria  toward  the  west,  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  in  the  center,  and  Venetia  toward  the  east. 


ITALY   AND   THE   ORIGIN   OF    ROME  263 

(2)  Central  Italy  comprised  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula proper,  that  is,  the  territory  between  the  line  just  drawn 
from  the  Macra  to  the  Rubicon,  and  another  line  drawn  from 
the  Sil'arus  on  the  west  to  the  Frento  on  the  east.     This  terri- 
tory contained  six  countries,  namely,  three  on  the  western 
coast, — Etruria.    Latium    (la'shi-um) ,    and    Campania;    and 
three  on  the  eastern  coast  and  along  the  Apennines, — Umbria, 
Pice'num,  and  what  we  call  the  Sabellian  country,  which  in- 
cluded many  mountain  tribes,  chief  among  which  were  the 
Sa'bines  and  the  Sam'nites. 

(3)  Southern  Italy  comprised  the  rest  of  the  peninsula  and 
contained  four  countries,  namely,  two  on  the  western  coast, 
Lucania  and  Bruttium,  extending  into  the  toe  of  Italy;  and 
two  on  the  eastern  coast,  Apulia  and  Calabria  (or  lapygia), 
extending  into  the  heel  of  Italy. 

II.     THE  PEOPLES  OF  ITALY 

The  Settlement  of  Italy. — Long  before  Rome  was  founded, 
every  part  of  Italy  was  already  peopled.  Many  of  the  peo- 
ples living  there  came  from'  the  north,  around  the  head  of 
the  Adriatic,  pushing  their  way  toward  the  south  into  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  peninsula.  Others  came  from  Greece  by 
way  of  the  sea,  settling  upon  the  southern  coast.  It  is  of 
course  impossible  for  us  to  say  precisely  how  Italy  was  set- 
tled. It  is  enough  for  us  at  present  to  know  that  most  of  the 
earlier  settlers  spoke  an  Indo-European,  or  Aryan,  language, 
and  that  when  they  first  appeared  in  Italy  they  were  scarcely 
civilized,  living  upon  their  flocks  and  herds  and  just  beginning 
to  cultivate  the  soil. 

The  Italic  Tribes. — The  largest  part  of  the  peninsula  was 
occupied  by  a  number  of  tribes  which  made  up  the  so-called 
Italic  race.  We  may  for  convenience  group  these  tribes  into 
four  divisions,  the  Latins,  the  Oscans,  the  Sabellians,  and  the 
Umbrians. 


264 


THE   ROMAN   WORLD 


(1)  The  Latins  dwelt  in  central  Italy,  just  south  of  the 
Tiber.  They  lived  in  villages  scattered  abo\it  Latium,  tilling 
their  fields  and  tending  their  flocks.  The  village  was  a  col- 
lection of  straw-thatched  huts;  it  generally  grew  up  about  a 
hill,  which  was  fortified,  and  to  which  the  villagers  could 
retreat  in  times  of  danger.  Many  of  these  Latin  villages 
or  hill-towns  grew  into  cities,  which  were  united  into  a 

league  for  mutual  pro- 
tection, and  bound  to- 
gether by  a  common 
worship  (of  Jupiter  Lati- 
aris),  and  by  an  annual 
festival  which  they  cele- 

J  ."f-  \    ^Vo~^%     Crated     on     the     Alban 

K<4fe,,  '..:"x  •    -;»     <?.  Mount,  near  which  was 

•    4  Xitt  i-  j  ^ 

situated  Alba  Longa, 
their  chief  city  (see 
map,  p.  284). 

(2)   The  0 scans  were 
the  remnants  of  an  early 

Italic   people   which   in- 
THE  PEOPLES  OF  ITALY  habitod    the    country 

stretching  southward  from  Latium,  along  the  western  coast. 
In  their  customs  they  were  like  the  Latins,  although  perhaps 
not  so  far  advanced.  Some  authors  include  in  this  branch 
the  vEquians,  the  Her'nicans,  and  the  Volscians,  who  carried 
on  many  wars  with  Rome  in  early  times. 

(3)  The  Sabeliians  embraced  the  most  numerous  and  war- 
like peoples  of  the  Italic  stock.  They  lived  to  the  east  and  south 
of  the  Latins  and  Oscans,  extending  along  the  ridges  and  slopes 
of  the  Apennines.  They  were  devoted  not  so  much  to  farming 
as  to  the  tending  of  flocks  and  herds.  They  lived  also  by 
plundi  i  iiiLT  tlu-ir  neighbors'  harvests  and  carrying  off  their 
neighbors'  cattle.  They  were  broken  up  into  a  great  numher 
of  tribes,  the  most  noted  of  which  were  the  Samnites,  a  hardy 


TYRRHENIAN 

-      SEA 


ITALY    AND    THE    ORIGIN    OF    ROME 


265 


race  which  became  the  great  rival  of  the  It 0111:111  people  for  tin- 
possession  of  central  Italy.  Another  Sabcllian  people  were 
the  Sabines,  who  were  early  united  to  Koine. 

(4)  The  Umbrians  lived  to  the  north  of  the  Sabellians. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  the  oldest  people  of  Italy.  But 
when  the  Romans  came  into  contact  with  them,  they  had 
become  crowded  into  a  comparatively  small  territory,  and 
were  not  very  important.  They  were  broken  up  into  small 


A  TEMPORARY  VILLAGE  OF  STRAW  HUTS  IN  MODERN  ITALY — 

SUPPOSED    TO    BE    LIKE    AN    ANCIENT    LATIN    VILLAGE 

tribes,  living  in  hill-towns  and  villages,  and  these  were  often 
united  into  loose  confederacies. 

The  Etruscans. — Northwest  of  Latium  dwelt  the  Etruscans, 
in  some  respects  the  most  remarkable  people  of  early  Italy. 
Their  origin  is  shrouded  in  mystery.  In  early  times  they 
were  a  powerful  nation,  stretching  from  the  Po  to  the  Tiber, 
and  having  possessions  even  in  the  plains  of  Campania.  Their 
cities  were  fortified,  often  in  the  strongest  manner,  and  also 
linked  together  in  confederations.  Their  prosperity  was 
founded  not  only  upon  agriculture,  but  also  upon  commerce. 

Their  religion  was  a  gloomy  and  weird  superstition,  in 


266  THE   ROMAN    WORLD 

which  they  thought  that  they  could  discover  the  will  of  the 
gods  by  means  of  augury,  that  is,  by  watching  the  flight  of 
birds  and  by  examining  the  entrails  of  animals.  The  Etrus- 
cans were  great  builders;  and  their  massive  walls,  durable 
roads,  well-constructed  sewers,  and  imposing  sepulchers  show 
the  greatness  of  their  civilization. 

The  Greeks  in  Italy. — But  the  most  civilized  and  cultivated 
people  in  Italy  were  the  Greeks,  who  had  planted  their  colonies 
at  Taren'tum,  and  on  the  western  coast  as  far  as  Naples 
(Neapolis)  in  Campania.  So  completely  did  these  coasts  be- 
come dotted  with  Greek  cities,  enlivened  with  Greek  com- 
merce, and  influenced  by  Greek  culture,  that  this  part  of  the 
peninsula  received  the  name  of  Magna  Graecia.  The  Greeks 
also,  as  we  have  already  seen  (p.  157),  held  the  eastern  and 
southern  coasts  of  Sicily,  while  the  Carthaginians  were  en- 
croaching upon  the  western  coast  of  the  island. 

The  Gauls. — If  the  Greeks  in  the  extreme  south  were  the 
most  civilized  people  of  Italy,  the  Gauls  or  Celts,  in  the 
extreme  north,  were  the  most  barbarous.  Crossing  the  Alps 
from  western  Europe,  they  had  pushed  back  the  Etruscans 
and  occupied  the  plains  of  the  Po;  hence  this  region  received 
the  name  which  it  long  held,  Cisalpine  Gaul.  From  this  land 
the  Gauls  made  frequent  incursions  toward  the  south,  and 
were  for  a  long  time  a  terror  to  the  other  peoples  of  Italy. 

III.     THE  EARLY  LEGENDS  OF  ROME* 

Leg-ends  regarding  the  Founding  of  the  City. — The  ancient 
Romans  knew  as  little  as  we  do  regarding  the  way  in 
which  Italy  was  first  peopled.  But  they  fancied  that 
they  had  in  their  legends  the  true  story  of  the  settlement  of 
Latium  and  the  founding  of  their  own  city.  These  legends — 
as  told  by  the  historian  Livy  and  sung  by  the  poet  Vergil — 
recount  the  wanderings  of  ^ne'as  with  his  heroic  h;ni<l  of 
Trojan  warriors  after  the  fall  of  Troy;  their  landing  upon 


ITALY    AND    THK    ORIGIN    OF    ROME 


2(57 


(Coin) 


the  shores  of  Latium;  their  founding  of  the  city  of  Lavinium 
and  later  of  Alba  Longa.  These  legends  also  tell  of  the 
miraculous  birth  of  the  twin  children  Rom'ulus  and  Remus, 
whose  reputed  father  was  Mars,  the  god  of  war;  of  their 
being  thrown  into  the  Tiber  and  of  their  being  rescued  by 
a  wolf,  near  the  foot  of  the  Pal'atine  hill  (map,  p.-  272)  ; 
of  their  desire  afterward  to  found  a  new  city  on  the  spot  of 
their  deliverance;  of  their  quarrel,  which 
resulted  in  the  death  of  Remus,  leaving 
Romulus  as  the  surviving  founder  of  the 
city.  The  date  of  the  founding  of  the 
city,  according  to  Roman  reckoning,  was 
753  B.  c. 

Legends  of  the  Early  Kings. — According 
to  the  old  legends  Rome  was  at  first  a 
kingdom,  and  the  first  king  was  Romulus.  To  people  his 
new  city  he  opened  an  asylum  for  refugees,  and  he  captured 
wives  from  the  neighboring  Sabines.  He  divided  the  people 
into  tribes,  curies,  and  clans.  He  formed  an  alliance  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  Sabines,  who  agreed  to  live  peace- 
fully together  as  cit- 
izens of  one  town. 
After  a  reign  of 
thirty-seven  years 
he  was  translated  to 
heaven  and  worshiped  un- 
der the  name  of  Quiri'nus. 
The  second  king  was 
Numa  Pompil'ius,  a 
Sabine,  who  was  elected 
by  the  people,  after  an 
interregnum  of  a  year. 
He  was  a  peaceful  ruler; 
was  said  to  hold  communication  with  the  gods;  and  was 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  religious  institutions  of  Rome, 


ROMTJLTTS    AND    REMUS    AND 
THE    WOLF. 


208 


THE   ROMAN    WORLD 


as  Romulus  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  political 
institutions. 

During  the  reign  of  the  third  king,  Tullus  Hostil'ius,  a 
war  was  carried  on  with  Alba  Longa.  The  issue  of  this  war 
was  decided,  so  the  story  goes,  by  a  combat  between  the  three 
Hora'tii,  champions  of  the  Romans,  and  the  three  Curia'tii, 
champions  of  Alba — resulting  in  the  triumph  of  the  Romans 
and  the  submission  of  Alba  to  the  Roman  power. 

The  fourth  king,  Ancus  Marcius,  was  a  Sabine,  the  grand- 
son of  Numa.  He  too  was  a  man  of  peace,  but  was  drawn 
into  a  war  with  several  of  the  Latin  cities.  Having  subdued 
them,  he  transferred  their  inhabitants  to  the  Av'entine  hill 
(map,  p.  272). 

Legends  of  the  Later  Kings. — The  three  later  kings  of 
Rome  are  represented  as  having  been  Etruscans.  The  first  of 
these  was  Tarquin'ius  Priscus,  who  migrated  to  Rome  from 

the  Etruscan  city  of  Tar- 
quinii.  He  strengthened  his 
position  as  king  by  adopting 
the  royal  insignia  of  the 
Etruscans — a  crown  of  gold, 
a  scepter,  an  ivory  chair,  a 
purple  toga,  etc.  He  car- 
ried on  war  with  the  Latins 
and  Sabines,  drained  the  city, 
laid  out  the  forum,  and 
dedicated  a  temple  to  Jupiter 
on  the  Cap'itoline  hill. 

The  next  of  the  later  kings 

was  Servius  Tullius,   the  son 
THE  I:..DER  BRUTUS  of  ft  gkve  womfln  of  the  king>s 

househofd.  He  united  Rome  and  the  Latin  cities  in  a 
league;  reorganized  the  government,  and  erected  a  new  wall 
inclosing  the  seven  hills. 

The  last  king  was  Tarquinius  Superbus,  who  ruled  as  a 


ITALY    AND    THK    ORIGIN    OF    ROME  269 

'despot,  and  was  at  last  driven  from  the  throne  by  the  elder 
Brutus  and  his  friend  Collati'nus  (510  B.  c.) 

Legends  of  the  Early  Kepublic. — The  legends  contain  many 
stories  relating  not  only  to  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  but 
to  the  early  years  of  the  republic.  It  is  said  that  after  the 
last  Tarquin  was  expelled,  the  people  elected  in  his  stead 
Brutus  and  Collatinus  to  rule  them  for  a  year;  that  Brutus 
condemned  his  own  sons  to  death  for  conspiring  to  restore 
the  Tarquins;  that  the  Etruscans 
under  a  prince  called-  Lars  Por- 
sen'na  (or  Por'sena)  lent  their  aid 
to  the  Tarquins,  and  that  their  armies 
were  prevented  from  entering  Rome 
by  the  heroic  defense  of  the  wooden 
bridge  by  Horatius  Codes.  It  is  re- 
lated that  the  cause  of  the  banished 
king  was  then  espoused  by  the  Latins  HORATIUS  COCLES 
and  that  their  armies  were  defeated  at 

the  battle  of  Lake  Regil'lus  (near  Tusculum)  by  the  aid  of 
the  twin  gods  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Significance  of  the  Roman  Legends.— ^Such  were  some  of 
the  stories  which,  embellished  with'  many  miraculous  incidents, 
the  Romans  were  proud  to  relate,  as  explaining  the  origin 
of  their  city  and  the  beginning  of  their  institutions.  Like 
all  other  legends  these  stories  have  little  value  as  evidence 
of  what  actually  took  place.  They  contain  many  improbable 
details,  which  were  evidently  based  not  upon  fact,  but  upon 
fancy.  They  refer  to  particular  persons  as  the  creators  of 
their  institutions,  although  fhese  must  have  been  the  result 
of  a  slow  process  of  growth.  Some  of  the  stories  were  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greeks,  and  used  by  the  Romans  for  their 
own  purpose.  So  incredible  are  some  of  these  legends  that 
the  whole  body  of  this  traditional  history  is  sometimes  set 
aside  as  unworthy  of  belief  or  even  of  serious  consideration. 

But  while  their  credibility  may  be  questioned,  the  signifi- 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. 16 


270  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

cance  of  these  traditions  should  not  be  overlooked.  While  they 
may  riot  indicate  what  actually  occurred,  they  show  what  the 
people  really  believed.  They  show  that  the  Romans  took 
pride  in  their  political  institutions,  that  they  honored  the 
virtues  of  courage  and  patriotism,  and  that  they  believed  their 
destiny  was  in  the  hands  of  the  gods.  They  continued  to  be 
an  inspiration  to  the  Roman  people — in  their  wars,  in  their 
political  life,  in  their  literature  and  art.  While  we  may  not 
regard  these  legends  as  history,  it  is  yet  true  that,  without  a 
knowledge  of  them,  there  is  much  in  Roman  history  that  we 
could  not  understand. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  JHE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ITALY. — Transition  to  Roman  History. — 
The  Italian   Peninsula. — The   Mountains  and   Rivers   of  Italy. — 
Climate  and  Products. — The  Divisions  of  Italy. 

II.  THE   PEOPLES    OF   ITALY. — The    Settlement   of   Italy. — The 
Italic  Tribes.— The  Etruscans.— The  Greeks  in  Italy.— The  Gauls. 

III.  THE   EARLY  LEGENDS   OF   ROME. — Legends   regarding-  the 
Founding  of  the  City. — Legends  of  the  Early  Kings. — Legends 
of  the  Later  Kings. — Legends  of  the  Early   Republic. — Signifi- 
cance of  the  Roman  Legends. 

REFERENCES   FOR   READING 

Liddell,  Bk.  I.,  "Rome  under  the  Kings"   (18). > 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  3,  "The  Earliest  Legends"  (18). 

Pelham,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Traditions"    (18). 

How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  2,  "The  Peoples  of  Italy";  Ch.  3  (legends  of 

the  kings)    (18). 
Ihne,  Early  Rome,  Ch.  5  (18). 
Mommsen,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  9,  "The  Etruscans";  Ch.  10,  "The 

Hellenes  in  Italy"  (18). 
Livy,  Bk.  I.  (legends  of  the  kings)   (25). 
Vergil,  Bk.  I.   (wanderings  of  ^Eneas)    (25). 
Munro,  Source  Book,  Part  I.,  "Italy— Rome"  (25). 

'The  figure  In  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  In  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 


THE    EARLY    CITY    £TATE— REGAL    ROME 
I.     ORIGIN  OF  THE  KOMAN   CITY 

The  Site  of  Rome. — By  studying  the  situation  of  Some 
itself  we  may  perhaps  get  a  clearer  idea  of  the  probable  origin 
of  the  city  than  we  can  obtain  from  the  traditional  stories. 
The  city  was  located  on  the  southeast  bank  of  the  river  Tiber, 
about  eighteen  miles  from  the  sea.  To  the  south  of  this 
locality  was  La- 
tium,  or  the  coun- 
try of  the  Latins; 
to  the  northeast 
was  the  country  of 
the  Sabines ;  and 
to  the  northwest, 
across  the  Tiber, 
was  the  land  of 
the  Etruscans.  The 
city  thus  grew  up 
at  the  point  of  con- 
tact between  three  LANDS  ABOUT  THE  TlBER 
different  peoples,  who  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the 
early  development  of  the  state. 

If  we  look  more  closely  at  this  locality,  we  shall  see  that  it 
contained  a  group  of  seven  hills  which  could  be  occupied  and 
defended  against  the  attack  of  enemies.  Of  these  hills  three  lay 
to  the  northeast — the  Quir'inal,  the  Yim'inal,  and  the  Es'qui- 
line;  three  lay  to  the  south — the  Palatine,  the  Calian,  and 

271 


?Lavinium;. 


Tusculum 


M 


272 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


THE  HILLS  OF  ROME 


the  Aventine;  while  between  these  two  minor  groups  rose 
the  small  and  rugged  elevation  of  the  Capitoline.  The  most 
important  of  these  hills  were  the  Quirinal  in  the  first  group, 

and  the  Palatine  in 
the  second.  These 
hills  were  the  best 
fitted  for  defense, 
and  hence  for  occu- 
pation by  settlers. 
If  we  compare  these 
two  hills,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  Pala- 
tine occupies  the  most 
central  and  c  o  in  - 
manding  position, 
and  its  settlers,  as  we  shall  see,  became  the  controlling  people 
of  the  seven-hilled  city. 

The  Latin  Settlement  on  the  Palatine. — So  far  as  we  know, 
the  first  people  to  get  a  foothold  upon  the  site  of  Rome  were 
the  Latins,  who  formed  a  settlement  upon  and  about  the  Pala- 
tine hill.  This  Latin  settlement  was  at  first  a  small  village. 
It  consisted  of  a  few  farmers  and  shepherds  who  were  sent  out 
from  Latium  (perhaps  from  Alba  Longa)  as  a  sort  of 
outpost,  both  to  protect  the  Latin 
frontier  and  to  trade  with  the  neigh- 
boring tribes.  The  people  who  formed 
this  settlement  were  called  Ramnes. 
They  dwelt  in  their  rude  straw  .huts 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Palatine,  and  on 
the  lower  lands  in  the  direction  of  the 
Aventine  and  the  Caelian.  The  out- 
lying lands  furnished  the  fields  which 
they  tilled  and  used  for  pasturage.  For  protection  against 
attacks,  the  sides  of  the  Palatine  hill  were  strengthened  by  a 
wall  built  of  rude  but  solid  masonry.  This  fortified  place  was 


HrT-sii.\iM:i>  ITI:N 


THE    EARLY    CITY    STATE 


273 


called  Roma  Quadra  ta,  or  "  Square  Rome."  It  formed  the  cita- 
del of  the  colony,  into  which  the  settlers  could  drive  their  cattle 
and  conduct  their  families  when  attacked  by  hostile  neighbors. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  primitive  wall  of  the  Palatine 


"WALL  OF  ROMULUS" 

city,  known  as  the  "  Wall  of  Romulus/'  has  in  recent  years  been 
uncovered,  so  that  we  can  see  its  general  character. 

The  Sabine  Settlement  on  the  Quirinal. — Opposite  the  Pala- 
tine settlement  there  grew  up  a  settlement  on  the  Quirinal  hill. 
This  Quirinal  settlement  seems  to  have  been  an  outpost  or  col- 
ony of  the  Sabine  people,  just  as  the  Palatine  settlement  was  a 
Latin  colony.  The  Sabines  were  pushing  southward  from 
beyond  the  A'nio.  The  settlers  on  the  Quirinal  were  called 
Tit'i-es;  their  colony  formed  a*  second  hill-town,  similar  in 
character  and  nearly  equal  in  extent,  to  the  Palatine  town. 

Union  of  the  Romans  and  the  Sabines. — The  two  hill-towns 
which  thus  faced  each  other  naturally  became  rivals  for  the 


874 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


possession  of  the  lands  near  the  Tiber ;  but  being  so  nearly  of 
equal  strength,  neither  could  conquer  the  other.  They  there- 
fore formed  an  alliance,  were  united  by  a  permanent  league, 
and  really  became  a  single  city — or  perhaps  we  might  better 
call  it  a  double  city.  To  celebrate  this  union,  the  intervening 
space  was  dedicated  to  the  two,-faced  god,  Janus,  who  watched 
the  approaches  of  both  towns,  and  whose  temple  was  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Numa.  The  Capitoline  hill  was  chosen 


SCALE  OF  FEET 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  EARLY  KINGS— THE  THREE  .TRIBES 

A,  Roma  Quadrata.     B,  Arx,  or  Citadel 

Temples,  Altars,  etc.:  1,  Jupiter  Capitolinus ;  2,  Janus;  3,  Quirinus; 
4,  Vesta ;  5,  Tarpeian  Rock 

as  the  common  citadel.  The  space  between  the  two  towns 
was  used  as  a  common  market  place  (forum),  and  also  as  a 
place  for  the  common  meeting  of  the  people  (comitium) .  This 
union  of  the  Palatine  and  Quirinal  towns  into  one  community, 
with  a  common  religion  and  government,  was  an  event  of 
great  importance.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  first  step  in  the  process 
of  "  incorporation  "  which  afterward  made  Rome  the  most 
powerful  city  of  Latium,  of  Italy,  and  finally  of  the  world; 


THE    EAKLY    CITY    STATE  275 

The  Third  Settlement,  on  the  Cselian. — The  union  of  the- 
Romans  (Kamnes)  and  the  Sabines  (Titles)  was  followed  by 
the  introduction  of  a  third  people,  called  the  Lu  ceres.  This 
people  was  probably  a  body  of  Latins  who  had  been  conquered 
and  settled  upon  the  Caelian  hill,  although  they  are  sometimes 
regarded  as  having  been  Etruscans.  Whatever  may  havo 
been  their  origin,  it  is  quite  certain  that  they  soon  came  to  be 
incorporated  as  a  part  of  the  whole  city  community.  The  city 
of  the  early  Roman  kings  thus  came  to  be  made  up  of  three 
divisions,  or  "tribes"  (tribus,  a  third  part,  from  tres,  three). 
The  evidence  of  this  threefold  origin  was  preserved  in  many 
institutions  of  later  times.  The  three  settlements  were  gradu- 
ally united  into  a  single  city  state  with  ,common  social,  politi- 
cal, and  religious  institutions.  By  this  union  the  new  city 
became  strong  and  able  to  compete  successfully  with  its 
neighbors. 

II.     THE  CITY  STATE  OF  THE  EARLY  KINGS 

The  Early  Roman  Society. — To  understand  more  fully  the 
beginnings  of  the  Roman  state,  we  must  look  at  the  way  in 
which  the  people  were  organized,  that  is,  how  they  were  ar- 
ranged in  social  groups.  Each  tribe  was  made  up  of  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  groups,  called  curies  (curice)  ;  and  these^  in 
turn  were  composed  of  different  clans  (or  gentes),  which 
themselves  consisted  of  several  families.  The  early  Roman 
society  was  therefore  formed  by  the  union  of  families,  gentes, 
curiae,  and  tribes. 

(1)  The  family  was  the  smallest  unit  of  Roman  society. 
At  its  head  was  the  household  father  (pater  familias).  His 
power  extended  to  "  life  and  death  " — which  is  simply  another 
way  of  saying  that  his  authority  was  supreme  within  the  house- 
hold. He  performed  the  family  worship  about  the  domestic 
altar,  upon  which  the  sacred  fire  was  kept  burning.  The 
family  consisted  of  the  mother,  the  sons  and  grandsons,  the 


276  THE   ROMAN    WORLD 

unmarried  daughters  and  granddaughters,  as  well  as  the 
adopted  children — all  of  whom  remained  under  the  father's 
power  as  long  as  he  lived. 

(2)  The  gens  was  a  group  of  families  which  were  related  to 
one   another,   having   the   same  name   and   supposed   to  be 
descended  from  a  common  ancestor.     It  was  presided  over 
by  a  common  chief,  who  performed  the  religious  rites  of  the 
gens,  and  led  the  people  in  time  of  war. 

(3)  The  curia  was  a  collection  of  gentes  which  had  united 
at  first  for  their  common  defense,  but  had  come  to  form  an 
organized  community,  with  a  common  chief,  a  council   of 
elders,  and  an  assembly  composed  of  all  men  capable  of  bear- 
ing arms. 

(4)  The  tribe  was  composed  of  a  number  of  curise  which  had 
formed  an  alliance  for  their  common  protection.     The  tribe 
had  come  to  have  a  political  organization — a  chief,  who  was 
priest,  commander  in  war,  and  judge ;  a  council  of  elders ;  and 
a  general  assembly.     The  communities  on  the  Palatine  and 
Quirinal  hills  were  each  such  a  tribe,  before  they  united  to 
form  a  common  state. 

The  Early  Roman  Government. — With  the  union  of  the 
first  two  tribes,  their  governments  were  also  united  so  as  to 
form  a  single  government.  For  example,  their  two  kings 
were  replaced  by  one  king  chosen  alternately  from  each  tribe. 
Their  councils  and  assemblies  were  also  united  so  as  to  form 
single  bodies.  And  when  the. third  tribe  is  added,  we  have 
a  single  king,  a  single  council  of  three  hundred  members,  and 
a  single  assembly  of  thirty  curia?  (comi'tia  curia' ta). 

(1)  The  Roman  -king  (rex)  was  the  chief  of  the  whole 
people.  He  was  elected,  or  at  least  approved,  by  the  people, 
and  inaugurated  under  the  sanction  of  the  gods.  He  was  in 
a  sense  the  father  of  the  whole  nation — their  chief  priest,  their 
commander  in  war,  and  their  supreme  judge.  Like  the  father 
in  the  household,  he  had  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  all 
his  subjects. 


THE    EARLY    CITY    STATE  277 

(2)  The  Roman  senate,  or  council  of  elders,  was  composed 
of  the  chief  men  of  the  gentes,  who  were  chosen  by  the  king 
to  assist  him  with  their  advice.     Upon  the  death  of  the- king 
they  might  choose  a  temporary  king  (interrex)  to  act  as  ruler 
until  the  regular  successor  was  elected. 

(3)  The  comitia  curiata  was  the  assembly  of  all  the  people 
capable  of  bearing  arms,  arranged  by  curia?.     Each  curia  had 
a  single  vote,  and  the  will  of  the  assembly  was  determined  by  a 
majority  of  such  votes.     In  a  certain  sense  the  assembly  was 
the  highest  authority  in  the  state.     It  elected  the  king  and 
passed  a  law  (lex  curiata  de  imperio)  conferring  upon  him 
his  power.     To  it  the  king  submitted  important  questions,  like 
those  regarding  peace  or  war.    The  early  city  state  may  there- 
fore be  described  as  a  democratic  monarchy,  in  which  the  king 
derived  his  power  from  the  people. 

The  Early  Roman  Religion. — The  Roman  people  were 
strongly  influenced  by  religious  ideas.  All  powe.r,  from  that 
of  the  household  father  to  that  of  the  king,  was  believed  to 
be  sanctioned  by  the  gods.  The  general  character  of  the  early 
Roman  religion  may  be  seen  in  the  nature  of  their  deities, 
their  religious  officers,  and  the  religious  observances. 

(1)  To  the  ancestral  gods,  which  were  worshiped  in  the 
family  and  gens,  were  added  the  gods  of  nature,  which  the 
Romans  saw  everywhere.     These  early  deities  were  those  which 
naturally  sprang  from  the  imagination  of  a  pastoral  and  agri- 
cultural people, — Tellus,  the  goddess  of  the  earth;  Saturn, 
the  god  of  sowing ;  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  the  harvest ;  Minerva, 
of  olives;  Flora,  of  flowers;  Liber,  the  god  of  wine.     When 
the  people  were  united  into  one  state,  they  chose  as  their  na- 
tional gods,  Jupiter,  the  god  of  the  sky ;  Mars,  the  god  of  war ; 
and  Quirinus,  or  the  deified  Romulus. 

(2)  The  religious  officers  were  appointed  by  the  king  to 
maintain  the  national  worship.     To  each  of  the  three  na- 
tional gods  was  assigned  a  special  priest,  called  a  flamen.     The 
Satii  watched  over  the  shield  of  Mars,  which  was  supposed 


278 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  Six  vestal 
virgins  kept  always  burning  the  fires  of 
Vesta,  the  goddess  of  the  hearth  and  of 
domestic  happiness.  The  fetia'les  presided 
over  the  formalities  of  declaring  war. 
Special  pontiffs,  under  a  pontifex  maximus, 

THE  Six  VESTALS  had   charge   of   the   religious   festivals   and 
(Medallion) 

ceremonies. 
(3)   The  religious   observances   of   the   Romans   consisted 

chiefly  of  prayers,  offerings, 

and  festivals.  Their  prayers 
I  were  addressed  to  the  gods  to 
,  obtain  divine  favors,  and 

were  often  accompanied  by 

vows.     Their   offerings   con- 
sisted  either    of    the    fruits 

of  the  earth,  as  flowers,  wine, 

milk,    and    honey;    or    the 

sacrifice    of    animals,    such 

as  oxen,   sheep,  and   swine. 

Their  festivals,  which  were 

celebrated  in  honor  of  the 

gods,    were    very    numerous  • 

and  were  scattered  through  the  different  months  of  the  year. 


A  ROMAN  SACRIFICE 


III.     THE  CITY  STATE  OF  THE  LATER  KINGS 

The  Etruscan  Influence. — The  city  state  of  the  early  kings 
was,  as  \ve  ha  vi'  seen,  extremely  simple  in  its  organization — 
with  its  king,  its  senate,  and  its  general  assembly.  This  politi- 
cal organization  was  somewhat  changed  by  the  later  kings, 
who  arc  snpno^-d  lo  h;ive  come  from  Etruria.  The  kini^  «»!' 
Ktniria  wiv  powerful  ruler?,  and  for  a  time  threatened  to 
become  tin-  sovereigns  of  central  Italy.  It  seems  quite  cer- 
tain that  Rome,  during  the  later  period  of  the  kingdom, 


THE   EARLY   CITY    STATE  279 

came  under  their  control.  These  kings  brought  with  them 
their  own  insignia  of  royal  power — tho  golden  crown,  the 
ivory  scepter,  the  ivory  throne  or  "  curule  chair,"  the  twelve 
lictors,  each  carrying  a  bundle  of  rods  (fasces)  containing 
an  ax,  the  symbol  of  absolute  power.  The  Etruscans  also 
brought  with  them  the  art  of  the  harus'pices,  or  soothsayers,  by 
which  the  will  of  the  gods  was  supposed  to  be  discerned  in  the 
heavens,  as  well  as  in  the  entrails  of  the  animals  slain  for  the 
sacrifice.  Moreover,  the  Etruscans  were  great  builders;  they 
introduced  the  arch,  which  they  used  in  sewers,  and  which  the 
Romans  afterward  used  in  other  public  works. 

The  Clients  and  Plebeians. — To  understand  the  political 
changes  made  by  the  Etruscan  kings,  we  must  consider  the 
new  population  which  was  growing  up  at  Rome.  The  early  Ro- 
man society,  we  remember,  consisted  of  the  old  families  and 
gentes  which  had  united  to  form  the  original  state.  But  there 
grew  up  in  time  a  new  body  of  persons,  made  up  of  refugees  and 
other  immigrants,  and  perhaps  of  captives  taken  in  war.  As 
these  persons  had  at  first  no  rights  in  the  state,  they  attached 
themselves  to  the  old  Roman  families,  and  were  called 
"clients."  The  rights  of  such  persons  could  be  protected  by 
the  Roman  citizen  whom  they  might  choose  as  their  "  patron." 
The  persons  who  did  not  thus  attach  themselves  to  a  Roman 
citizen  were  in  a  certain  sense  the  clients  of  the  state,  and 
were  protected  in  their  rights  of  person  and  property  by  the 
laws  of  the  state.  They  had,  however,  no  right  to  intermarry 
with  Roman  citizens,  and  no  right  to  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment.1 This  new  population  came  to  be  known  as  "  plebe'- 
ians,"  as  opposed  to  the  old  body  of  Roman  citizens,  who  were 
known  as  "  patricians." 

1The  view  here  given  is  questioned  by  some  writers,  who  hold  that  the 
plebeians,  including  the  clients,  were  citizens,  having  the  right  to  vote  in 
the  assembly.  Such  an  opinion,  however,  seems  inconsistent  with  the  later 
historical  struggles  between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians,  unless  the 
plebeians  were  disfranchised  after  the  time  of  the  kingdom— and  there  is 
no  evidence  of  such  disfranchisement. 


280  THE   ROMAN   WORLD 

The  New  Local  Tribes. — The  Etruscan  kings  were  less 
desirous  to  preserve  the  old  distinctions  than  to  make  the 
state  strong  and  able  to  defend  itself  from  its  enemies.  They 
found  that  the  old  army — as  well  as  the  old  tax-levy — was 
drawn  from  the  three  patrician  tribes,  each  tribe  furnishing 
1000  foot  soldiers  and  100  horsemen.  It  was  evident  that 
the  state  would  be  strengthened  if  the  plebeians,  as  well  as  the 
patricians,  were  called  upon  to  serve  in  the  army  and  to  pay 
taxes.  An  entirely  new  division  of  the  people  was  therefore 
made,  based  not  upon  their  birth  and  descent,  like  the  old 
patrician  tribes,  but  upon  their  domicile,  that  is,  the  place 
where  they  lived.  This  change  is  ascribed  to  Servius  Tullius. 
He  is  said  to  have  divided  the  whole  Roman  territory,  city 
and  country,  into  local  districts,  like  wards  and  townships. 
There  were  four  of  these  in  the  city,  and  sixteen  in  the  coun- 
try, the  former  being  called  "city  tribes"  (iribus  urbance), 
and  the  latter  "rural  tribes"  (tribus 
rusticce).  All  persons,  whether  patri- 
cians or  plebeians,  who  had  settled  homes 
(assidvi),  were  enrolled  in  these  new 
"local  tribes,"  and  were  made  subject 
to  military  service  and  the  tribal  tax 
(tributum) . 

The  New  Military  Organization. — The 
next   step   ascribed  to   Servius   was  the 
reorganization  of  the  Roman  army,  so 
that  it  should  include  all  persons  who 
resided  in  the  Roman  territory  and  were 
enrolled  in  the  new  local  tribes.     First 
came  the  cavalry  (eq'uites),  made  up  of 
SOI.DIKK  WITH  FULL   young  wealthy  citizens,  and  arranged  in 
ARMOR  eighteen  centuries,  or  companies  of  100 

men  each.  Next  came  the  infantry  (ped'ites),  which  com- 
l»ri-»'(l  all  the  rest  of  the  men  capable  of  bearing  arms.  Tn 
ancient  times  every  man  was  obliged  to  furnish  his  own 


THE    EARLY    CITY    STATE 

weapons.  Now  as  all  the  people  could  not  afford  to  obtain 
the  heavier  armor,  they  were  subdivided  into  "classes"  accord- 
ing to  their  wealth,  and  according  to  the  armor  it  was  supposed 
they  could  afford  to  furnish.  There  were  five  of  these  classes, 
each  containing  a  certain  number  of  centuries — one  half  of 
which  were  made  up  of  the  younger  men  (iuniores)  and  held 
for  active  service,  and  the  other  half  made  up  of  the  older  men 
(senior es)  and  held  as  reserves.  By  this  arrangement,  in 
place  of  the  old  army  of  3300  men,  provision  was  now  made 
for  an  army  of  nearly  20,000  men,  which  probably  comprised 
the  whole  population  of  Rome  capable  of  bearing  arms.1 

The  New  Assembly,  Comitia  Centuriata. — This  arrangement 
of  the  people  was  first  intended  for  a  purely  military  purpose ; 
but  it  soon  came  to  have  a  political  character  also.  There  was 
every  reason  why  the  important  questions  relating  to  war, 
which  had  heretofore  been  left  to  the  old  body  of  armed  citi- 
zens, should  now  be  left  to  the  new  body  of  armed  citizens. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  course  of  time  the  new  fighting  body 
became  a  new  voting  body ;  and  there  thus  arose  a  new  assem- 
bly called  the  assembly  of  the  centuries  (comitia  centuriata). 
But  this  new  assembly  did  not  lose  its  original  military  char- 
acter. For  example,  it  was  called  together,  not  by  the  voice  of 
the  lictors,  like  the  old  assembly,  but  by  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet.  Again,  it  did  not  meet  in  the  Forum,  where  the  old 
assembly  met,  but  in  the  Field  of  Mars  (Campus  Martins}, 
outside  of  the  city.  It  also  voted  by  centuries,  that  is,  by  mili- 
tary companies.  After  a  time  the  comitia  centuriata  acquired 

1We  may  perhaps  get  a  clearer  idea  of  this  new  military  arrangement 
by  the  following  table  : 
I. 
II. 


fantry  (Pedites) 

1st  class  (40  iuniores,  40  seniores) 

80  centuries. 

2d      "      (10         "        10               )      . 

20 

3d      "      (10         "        10                )      . 

20 

4th    ••     (10         "        10               )      . 

20 

5th    "     (10         "        10               )      . 

20 

Musicians,  Carpenters,  Substitutes 

15 

Total  . 

193  centuries. 

382 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


the  character  of  a  real  political  and  legislative  body,  of  greater 
importance  than  the  old  comitia  curiata. 

Growth  of  the  City. — These  changes  in  the  state  show  the 
influence  of  the  Etruscan  kings,  who  evidently  broke  away 


1000      2000      3000 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  LATER  KINGS — WALLS  OF  SERVIUS 

The  four  Servian  regions:  I.,  Suburana  ;  II.,  Palatina  ;  III.,  Esquilina  ; 
IV.,  Collina. 

The  chief  gates  of  Rome:  a,  Collina ;  6,  Viralnalis ;  c,  Esquilina;  rf, 
Querquetulana  ;  e,  Capena ;  f,  Ratumena. 

The  chief  buildings,  etc.:  1,  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus ;  2,  Janus: 
3,  Quirinus ;  4,  Vesta  ;  5,  Saturn  ;  6,  Diana ;  7,  Circus  Maximus ;  8,  Cloaca 
Maxima ;  9,  Vicus  Tuscus. 

from  the  narrow  ideas  of  the  old  patrician  aristocracy.  Their 
influence  is  also  seen  in  the  more  durable  temples  and  other 
buildings  which  were  constructed  during  the  later  kingdom— 
the  temple  to  Jupiter  or  the  Capitoline  hill,  the  one  to  Diana 
on  the  Aventine,  and  the  one  to  Saturn  al  the  foot  of  the 
Capitoline;  the  Circus  Maximus  laid  out  between  the  Pala- 


THE    EARLY    CITY    STATE  283 

tine  and  the  Aventine  for  the  amusement  of  the  people;  the 
Cloa'ca  Maxima,  or  the  great  drain  which  ran  under  the 
Forum  and  emptied  into  the  Tiber;  and  the  new  Servian 
wall  by  which  the  seven  hills  were  encircled  by  a  single  forti- 
fication. The  memory  of  this  Etruscan  influence  was  pre- 
served in  the  name  of  the  "Tuscan  Street"  (vicus  Tuscus) 
which  was  laid  out  near  the  Forum. 

Conquests  in  Latium. — While  Koine  was  thus  becoming 
strong,  and  her  people  were  becoming  more  united  and  better 
organized,  she  was  al^o  gaining  power  over  the  neighboring 
lands.  The  people  with  whom  she  first  came  into  contact  were 
the  Latins.  A  number  of  Latin  towns  were  conquered  or 
otherwise  brought  under  her  power,  and  some  of  the  con- 
quered territory  was  added  to  the  Roman  domain  (ager  Roma- 
nus).  She  also  pushed  her  conquests  across  the  Anio  into  the 
Sabine  country,  and  across  the  Tiber  into  Etruria.  So  that 
before  the  fall  of  the  kingdom,  Eome  had  begun  to  be  a  con- 
quering power. 

Review  of  the  Roman  Kingdom. — By  the  end  of  the  period 
of  the  Inter  kings,  Rome  had  come  to  be  a  strong  city,  and 
was  growing  into  something  like  a  new  nation,  with  a  kind  of 
national  policy.  If  we  should  sum  up  this  policy  in  two 
words,  these  words  would  be  expansion  and  incorporation.  By 
"  expansion  "  we  mean  the  extension  of  Roman  power  over  the 
neighboring  territory,  whether  by  conquest  or  by  alliance.  By 
"  incorporation  "  we  mean  the  taking  of  subject  people  into 
the  political  body.  For  example,  Rome  had  first  incorporated 
the  Sabine  settlement  on  the  Quirinal ;  then  the  Latin  settle- 
ment on  the  Crelian ;  and  finally  the  plebeian  class,  which  had 
grown  up  by  the  side  of  the  patrician  class.  By  pursuing 
this  kind  of  policy,  Rome  had  come  to  be,  at  the  end  of  the 
kingdom,  a  compact  and  quite  well-organized  city  state  with  a 
considerable  territory  of  her  own  (ager  Romanus)  about  the 
lower  part  of  the  river  Tiber,  and  having  a  control  over  the 
cities  of  Latium. 


MAP   No. 


Falerii 


Sutrium' 


Caere., 


*Nomentum 


FideiUEf  •  ^*fo;ia|  Sacer 


Pedum 


'•      •  Pr&neste 


fcy- 


Lavlnj 


iTusculum          / 

?'  H  E  R  N 

•  Sigula 


ROMAN  DOMINION 
At  the  End  of  the  Kingdom 

B.C.  510 

I__J Roman  domain(ager  Rotnanus) 
F~~]  Subject  territory  in  Latium 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

5        i5       i5       §0       2s       5> 
284 


THE    EARLY    CITY    STATK 


SYNOPSIS    FOR    REVIEW 

I.  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ROMAN  CITY. — The  Site  of  Koine. — The  Latin 
Settlement  of  the  Palatine. — The  Sabine  Settlement  of  the  Quiri- 
nal. — Union  of  the  Romans  and  the  Sabines. — The  Third  Settle- 
ment, on  the  Caelian. 

II.  THE  CITY  STATE  OF  THE  EARLY  KINGS. — The  Early  Roman 
Society. — The    Early    Roman    Government. — The    Early    Roman 
Religion. 

III.  THE  CITY  STATE  OF  THE  LATER  KINGS, — The  Etruscan  In- 
fluence.—The  Clients  and  Plebeians.— The  New  Local  Tribes.— The 
New  Military  Organi/ation. — The  New  Assembly. — Growth  of  the 
City. — Conquests  in  Latium. — Review  of  the  Roman  Kingdom. 

REFERENCES    FOR    R*EADING 

Schuckburgh,  Ch.  5,  "The  Regal  Period"  (18).1 

Pelham,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  2,  "Origin  of  the  City  and  Commonwealth"; 

Ch.  3,  "Rome  under  the  Kings"   (18). 
How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  4,  "The  Regal  Period"   (18). 
Ihne,  Early  Rome,  Ch.  9,  "  People  of  the  Regal  Period"  (18). 
Abbott,  Ch.  1,  "Rome  under  the  Kings";  Ch.  2,  "Monarchical  In- 
stitutions" (22). 
Granrud,  First  Period,  Ch.  1,  "Original  Constitution  of  Rome"; 

Ch.  2,  "Later  Royal  Constitution"  (22). 
Mommsen,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  L,  Ch.  4,  "Beginnings  of  Rome";   Ch.  5, 

"Original  Constitution  of  Rome";  Ch.  6,  "The  Non-Burgesses 

and  the  Reformed  Constitution"   (18). 
Abridged,    Ch.    3,    "Rome's    Original    Constitution";    Ch.  -4, 

"Reforms  of  Servius  Tullius"  (18). 
Greenidge,  Public  Life,  Ch.  1,  "Earliest  Constitution  of  Rome"; 

pp.  9-33   (the  Roman   family)    (22). 
Parker,  Ch.  2,  "Roma  Quadrata";  Ch.  5,  "The  City  of  the  Seven 

Hills"  (20). 
Mnnro,  Source  Book,  Part  II.,  "Religion"  (25). 

JThe   figure   in   parenthesis   refers   to  the  number  of   the  topic  In   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

FHE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  REPUBLICAN  CONSTITUTION 
I.     THE  EARLY  EEPUBLICAN  GOVERNMENT 

The  Two  Consuls. — When  the  kingdom  came  to  an  end,  the 
power  of  the  kings  was  put  into  the  hands  of  two  consuls  (at 
first  called  prcetors),  elected  by  the  people.  The  consular 
power,  though  derived  from  the  old  kingly  power,  was  yet  dif- 
ferent from  it  in  many  respects.  In  the  first  place,  the  power 
of  the  king  had  been  a  lifelong  power;  but  the  power  of  the 
consuls  was  limited  to  one  year.  Again,  the  royal  power  had 
been  held  by  one  person ;  but  the  consular  power  was  held  by 
two  persons,  so  that  each  was  a  restraint  upon  the  other. 
Moreover,  the  power  of  the  king  had  been  absolute,  that  is,  H 
had  extended  to  life  and  death  over  all  citizens  at  all  times ;  the 
power  of  the  consuls,  on  the  other  hand,  was  limited,  since 
they  could  not  exercise  the  power  of  life  and  death,  except  out- 
side of  the  city  and  over  the  army  in  the  field.  The  consuls 
retained  the  old  insignia  of  the  king;  but  when  in  the  city, 
the  ax  was  withdrawn  from  the  fasces.  In  this  way  the  chief 
authority  which  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  consuls  was 
shorn  of  its  worst  features.  It  must  also  be  noted  that  the 
priestly  power  of  the  king  was  not  given  to  the  consuls,  but 
to  a  special  officer,  called  king  of  the  sacrifices  (rex  sacroriim)  ; 
and  the  management  of  the  finances  was  put  in  charge  of  two 
qucestors  elected  by  the  people. 

The  Dictatorship. — The  Romans  were  wise  enough  to  see 
that  in  times  of  great  danger  the  power  of  the  consuls  might 
not  be  strong  enough  to  protect  the  state.  To  meet  such  an 
emergency  a  dictator  was  appointed,  who  was  a  sort  of  tempo- 


DEVELOPMENT  OV  THE  REPUBLIC 


287 


rary  king.  He  had  entire  control  of  the  city  and  the  army. 
He  was  even  given  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  citizens; 
and  his  lictors  (attendants)  retained 
the  ax  in  the  fasces.  But  this  extraor- 
dinary power  could  be  held  for  only 
six  months,  after  which  time  the 
dictator  could  be  held  responsible  for 
his  acts  while  in  office.  With  the 
dictator  there  was  generally  appointed 
another  officer,  who  was  second  in 
authority,  called  the  master  of  horse; 
but  over  him,  as  over  every  one  else, 
the  dictator  was  supreme. 

The  New  Senators. — When  the  con- 
suls were  elected,  it  is  said  that  one  of 
their  first  acts  was  to  fill  up  the  senate 
to  the  number  of  three  hundred  mem- 
bers. The  last  king  had  practically 
ruled  without  the  senate,  and  he  had 
no  reason  to  fill  the  vacancies  when  they  occurred.  But  the 
new  consuls  wished  the  help  of  the  senate,  and  therefore  de- 
sired to  keep  its  numbers  complete.  The  new  senators  who 
were  enrolled  were  called  conscripti;  and  the  whole  body  of 
senators  became  known  as  patres  conscripti. 

The  Popular  Assemblies. — With  the  establishment  of  the 
republic,  the  two  assemblies  with  which  we  are  already  ac- 
quainted, the  comitia  curiata  and  the  comitia  centuriata,  both 
remained.  But  the  former  lost  a  great  deal  of  its  old  power, 
which  became  transferred  to  the  latter.  The  assembly  of  the 
centuries  was  thus  the  body  in  which  the  people  generally 
expressed  their  will.  Here  they  elected  the  officers,  and  passed 
the  most  important  laws.  It  was  this  assembly  which  became 
the  chief  legislative  body  during  the  early  republic. 

The  Laws  of  Valerius  Poplicola. — It  is  said  that  after  the 
death  of  Brutus,  his  colleague  Valerius  (who  had  succeeded 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 17 


LICTORS 


288  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Collatinus)  did  not  call  an  assembly  to  elect  another  consul. 
This  aroused  the  fear  that  Valerius  wished  to  make  himself 
king.  But  it  was  soon  found  that  instead  of  aiming  to  be 
king,  he  was  preparing  a  set  of  laws  which  would  prevent  any 
one  from  becoming  king,  and  would  also  protect  the  people 
from  the  arbitrary  power  of  their  magistrates.  One  of  these 
laws  declared  that  any  person  who  assumed  the  chief  power 
without  the  people's  consent  should  be  condemned  as  a  traitor. 
Another  law  granted  to  every  citizen  the  right  of  an  appeal  to 
the  people,  in  case  he  was  condemned  for  a  capital  crime. 
These  laws,  known  as  the  Valerian  laws,  may  be  called  the 
"first  charter  of  Roman  liberty,"  because  they  protected  the 
people  from  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  power.  So  highly 
honored  was  Valerius  that  he  was  surnamed  Poplic'ola,  or 
the  People's  Friend. 

II.    THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ECONOMIC  RIGHTS 

Relation  of  the  Patricians  to  the  Plebeians. — The  patricians 
and  plebeians  had  united  in  their  efforts  to  drive  out  the  kings ; 
but  when  the  struggle  against  the  kingship  was  ended,  the 
chief  fruits  of  the  victory  fell  to  the  patricians.  The  plebe- 
ians could,  it  is  true,  still  vote  in  the  comitia  centuriata ;  but 
they  could  not  hold  any  of  the  new  offices,  nor  could  they  sit 
in  the  senate.  Rome  became  a  republic,  but  it  was  an 
aristocratic,  and  not  a  democratic  republic;  that  is,  the  chief 
power  rested  not  in  the  whole  people,  but  in  a  particular  class. 
The  plebeians  might  perhaps  have  submitted  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  patricians,  if  it  had  not  been  exercised  in  a  selfish 
and  oppressive  manner.  But  the  patrician  rule  proved  to 
be  as  despotic  as  that  of  the  kings;  and  a  long  and  fierce 
struggle  ensued  between  the  two  orders. 

Economic  Distress  of  the  Plebeians. — The  sorest  burden 
which  now  rested  upon  the  plebeians  was  the  harsh  law  of 
debt.  Having  lost  their  property  by  the  misfortunes  of  war, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 

they  were  obliged  to  borrow  money  of  the  rich  patricians ;  and 
they  were  thus  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  debtor  class.  But 
a  debtor  in  the  early  days  of  Rome  was  especially  wretched. 
If  he  could  not  pay  his  debt,  he  was  liable  to  be  arrested, 
thrown  into  a  dungeon,  and  made  the  slave  of  his  creditor. 
His  lot  was  chains,  stripes,  and  slavery. 

Another  cause  which  kept  the  plebeians  in  a  state  of  poverty 
was  the  unjust  distribution  of  the  public  land  (ager  publicus) 
which  had  been  acquired  in  war.  This  land  properly  belonged 
to  all  the  people,  and 
might  have  been  used  to 
relieve  the  distress  of  the 
poor.  But  the  govern- 
ment was  in  the  hands  of 
the  patricians,  and  they 
disposed  of  this  land 
for  their  own  benefit;  ROMAN  FARMEB 

they  allowed  it  to  be  "occupied,"  at  a  nominal  rent,  by  mem- 
bers of  their  own  order.  As  long  as  the  land  remained 
public,  it  could  not  be  sold  by  the  occupants ;  but  the  longer 
the  rich  patricians  retained  the  occupation  of  this  land,  the 
more  they  would  look  upon  it  as  their  own  property,  and 
ignore  the  fact  that  it  belonged  to  the  whole  Eoman  people. 
Thus  the  common  people  were  deprived  of  their  just  share 
of  the  land  which  they  had  helped  to  conquer. 

First  Secession  of  the  Plebeians. — It  was  the  hard  law  of 
debt  which  first  drove  the  plebeians  to  revolt.  As  there  was 
no  legal  way  to  redress  their  wrongs,  they  decided  that  they 
would  no  longer  serve  in  the  army,  but  leave  the  patricians  to 
fight  their  own  battles.  They  therefore  deserted  their  general, 
marched  in  full  array  to  a  hill  beyond  the  Anio,  which  they 
called  the  Sacred  Mount  (Mons  Sacer),  and  proposed  to  form 
an  independent  city  (494  B.  c.).  The  patricians  saw  that 
the  loss  of  the  plebeian  army  would  be  the  destruction  of 
Rome.  They  were  therefore  compelled  to  agree  that  the  debts 


290  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

of  all  insolvent  persons  should  be  canceled,  and  that  those 
imprisoned  on  account  of  debt  should  be  released. 

The  Tribunes  of  the  People. — But  the  most  important  result 
of  this  first  secession  was  the  creation  of  a  new  office,  that  of 
tribune  of  the  people.  In  order  to  protect  the  plebeians  from 
any  further  oppressive  acts  on  the  part  of  the  patrician  magis- 
trates, it  was  agreed  to  appoint  two  tribunes  from  among  the 
plebeians  themselves.  These  new  officers  were  given  the  power 
to  "veto" — that  is,  to  forbid — the  act  of  any  magistrate 
wlm-h  l>oro  unjustly  upon  any  citizen.  In  order  that  the 
tribunes  might  exercise  their  authority  without  hindrance, 
their  persons  were  made  "  inviolable  " — which  means  that  they 
could  not  be  arrested,  and  that  any  one  who  interfered  with 
them  in  the  exercise  of  their  lawful  duty  could  be  put  to 
death.  There  were  also  appointed  two  plebeian  cediles,  to  take 
charge  of  the  public  buildings  and  to  perform  police  duty. 

The  Plebeian  Assembly;  the  Comitia  Tributa.— The  meet- 
ings which  the  plebeians  had  occasionally  held  before  this 
time  now  assumed  the  character  of  a  permanent  assembly 
(concilium  plebis).  This  assembly  could  be  called  together 
by  the  tribunes,  and  was  permitted  to  elect  its  own  officers,  the 
tribunes  and  a?diles. 

We  find  soon  after  this  that  the  plebeian  assembly  was  re- 
organized upon  a  "  tribal  "  basis,  and  was  made  to  comprise  all 
the  people  living  in  the  different  "  local  tribes  " — both  patri- 
cians and  plebeians.  This  newly  organized  assembly  was  gen- 
erally called  the  comitia  iribu'ia,  and  in  it  the  plebeians,  being 
more  numerous,  were  able  to  exercise  a  great  deal  of  influence.1 

The  Agrarian  Proposal  of  Spurius  Cassius. — The  second 


'The  relation  of  the  concilium  plebis  to  the  comlHa  tributa  is  a  subject 
concerning  which  there  has  heen  much  dispute,  on  account  of  the  Indefinite 
references  made  to  them  by  the  ancient  writers.  The  various  views  are 
(1)  that  they  were  identical  ;  (1!)  that  they  were  distinct,  and  so  remained ; 
and  (3)  that  the  concilium  plebis  was  at  first  a  purely  plebeian  assembly, 
which  was  hitci-  tr.-msforniod  into  the  cnniHin  tritnitn,  composed  ,of  all 
plebeians  and  patricians  living  in  the  tribal  districts. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  REPUBLIC       291 

great  cause  of  complaint  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  unjust 
distribution  of  the  public  land.  To  remove  this  injustice  was 
the  effort  of  the  consul  Spurius  Cassius.  He  it  was  who  pro- 
posed the  first  "agrarian  law,"  that  is, a  law  intended  to  reform 
the  division  of  the  public  land  (486  B.  c.).  It  was  not  his 
purpose  to  take  away  any  private  land  which  legally  belonged 
to  the  patricians ;  but  to  make  a  more  just  distribution  of  the 
land  which  properly  belonged  to  the  whole  state.  The  passage 
of  this  law  was  prevented  by  the  patricians;  and  its  author 
was  charged  with  treason  and  condemned  to  death. 

III.     THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  EQUAL  LAWS 

The  Demand  for  a  Written  Code. — The  plebeians  were  at  a 
great  disadvantage  during  all  this  time,  because  the  law  was 
administered  solely  by  the  patricians,  who  kept  the  knowledge 
of  it  to  themselves,  and  who  regarded  it  as  a  precious  legacy 
from  their  ancestors,  too  sacred  to  be  shared  with  the  low-born 
plebeians.  The  laws  had  never  been  written  down  or  pub- 
lished. The  patricians  could  therefore  administer  them  as 
they  saw  fit.  Accordingly  one  of  the  tribunes,  Gaius  Teren- 
tilius  Harsa,  proposed  that  a  commission  be  appointed  to 
codify  the  law  and  to  publish  it  to  the  whole  people.  This 
proposal,  though  both  fair  and  just,  was  bitterly  opposed  by 
the  patricians,  and  was  followed  by  ten  years  of  strife  and 
dissension.  It  was  finally  agreed  that  a  commission  of  ten 
men,  called  "  decemvirs,"  should  be  appointed  to  draw  up  the 
law,  and  that  this  law  should  be  published  and  be  binding 
upon  patricians  and  plebeians  alike.  It  was  also  agreed  that 
the  commissioners  should  all  be  patricians;  and  that  they 
should  have  entire  control  of  the  government  while  compiling 
the  laws.  Thus  for  a  time  the  patricians  were  to  give  up  their 
consuls  and  quaestors,  and  the  plebeians  were  to  give  up  their 
tribunes  and  aediles.  Both  parties  were  to  cease  their  quarrel- 
ing and  await  the  work  of  the  decemvirs. 


292  THE   ROMAN    WORLD 

The  Decemvirs  and  the  XII.  Tables  (450  B.  c.).— The  first 
body  of  commissioners,  or  the  First  Decem'virate,  entered 
upon  the  work  assigned  to  it,  gathered  together  the  law  which 
had  hitherto  been  kept  secret,  and  inscribed  it  on  ten  tables 
of  brass.  These  tables  were  erected  in  the  Forum,  where  they 
could  be  seen  by  every  one,  and  were  declared  binding  on  all 
the  people.  At  the  close  of  the  year,  a  Second  Decemvirate 
was  appointed  to  complete  the  code,  and  two  more  tables  were 
added.  This  whole  body  of  law  was  called  the  Twelve  Tables, 
and  formed  the  basis  of  the  most  remarkable  system  of  law 
that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  There  was  nothing  strange, 
however,  in  the  XII.  Tables  themselves.  They  contained 
nothing  especially  new.  The  old  law  of  debt  remained  as  it 
was,  and  the  distinction  between  patricians  and  plebeians  was 
not  destroyed.  The  XII.  Tables  were  important  because  they 
put  the  law  before  the  eyes  of  the  people;  and  plebeians,  as 
well  as  patricians,  could  know  what  were  their  rights. 

The  Second  Secession  and  Overthrow  of  the  Decemvirate. — 
While  the  decemvirs  were  engaged  in  codifying  the  laws,  the 
old  republican  officers  were  temporarily  suspended.  It  was 
expected  that  the  decemvirs  would  lay  aside  their  exceptional 
authority  when  their  work  was  accomplished.  But  it  seems 
that  the  second  body  of  decemvirs  refused  to  resign,  and 
'threatened  to  establish  a  permanent  despotic  government  in 
place  of  the  old  consulate.  It  is  said  that  the  leader  of  this 
movement  was  Appius  Claudius.1  However  this  may  be,  the 
people,  fearing  that  their  liberties  were  in  danger,  once  more 
seceded  from  the  city.  The  Roman  state  seemed  again  on 
the  point  of  ruin,  and  the  decemvirs  were  forced  to  resign. 
The  old  government  was  restored,  with  newly  elected  con- 

1  With  this  movement  Is  connected  the  traditional  story  of  Virginia  : 
that  she  was  the  henutiful  daughter  of  n  plehelan  soldier  and  was  killed  liy 
her  father  to  prevent  her  from  falling  Into  the  hands  of  Appius  Claudius. 
Some  authorities,  however,  are  Inclined  to  believe  tliai  Appius  Claudius 
was  really  tl"-  friend  of  the  people,  and  that  this  story  was  Invented  by 
the  patricians  to  bring  his  name  Into  dishonor. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  KEPUBLIC       293 

suls  friendly  to  the  plebeians.     These  were  Lucius  Valerius 
and  Marcus  Horatius. 

The  Valerio-Horatian  Laws  (448  B.  c.). — The  second  seces- 
sion of  the  plebeians  resulted  not  only  in  the  overthrow  of  the 
decemvirate  and  the  restoration  of  the  consulate;  it  resulted 
also  in  the  passage  of  certain  important  laws,  which  received 
the  name  of  the  new  consuls : 

(1)  The  right  of  appeal  in  capital  cases  (p.  288)  was  re- 
affirmed, and  this  applied  to  plebeians  as  well  as  patricians. 

(2)  The  power  of  .the  plebeian  tribunes  was  sanctioned  by 
the  declaration  that  he  who  raised  his  hand  against  them 
should  be  accursed. 

(3)  The  authority  of  the  plebeian  assembly  was  made  clear 
by  the  provision  that  its  acts  should  be  binding  upon  the  whole 
people — patricians  as  well  as  plebeians.     This  provision,  with 
the  changes  made  in  its  organization    (p.   290),  made  the 
comitia  tribute  a  real  legislative  body  for  the  whole  state. 

These  laws  made  definite  and  clear  the  constitutional  rights 
of  the  people,  and  secured  to  them  the  privileges  they  had  al- 
ready obtained.  They  may  be  called  "  the  second  charter  of 
Eoman  liberty"  (for  the  first  charter,  see  p.  288). 

The  Right  of  Intermarriage.— The  XII.  Tables  had  pre- 
served the  old  customary  law  prohibiting  intermarriage  be- 
tween patricians  and  plebeians.  But  soon  after  the  overthrow 
of  the  decemvirate  this  was  superseded  by  a  new  law  (lex 
Canuleia,  445  B.  c.)  which  granted  the  right  of  intermarriage 
between  the  two  orders.  This  insured  their  social  and  civil 
equality,  and  paved  the  way  for  their  political  equality,  and 
finally  their  union  into  a  harmonious  people. 

IV.     THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  POLITICAL  EQUALITY 

Progress  of  the  Plebeians. — In  order  that  we  may  keep 
in  mind  a  little  more  clearly  just  what  progress  the  plebeians 
had  made  up  to  this  time,  and  what  they  still  demanded,  let  us 


294  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

look  for  a  moment  at  the  following  table,  which  contains  a 
list  of  the  general  rights  possessed  by  a  full  Koman  citizen : 


The    rights    of 
citizenship  < 
(civitas) 


Public     rights  c  Right  of  holding  office  (hon- 
(iura      pub-  I      ores), 
lica).  [  Right  of  voting  (suffragium) . 

f  Right  of  intermarriage  (conn- 
Private  rights  j 

(iura     p  r  i  -  -i  .~.  ,  , 

I  Right   of   property   and   con- 

[      tract  (commercium). 


The  plebeians  already  possessed  the  lowest  right,  the  com- 
mercium;  they  could  hold  property  and  carry  on  trade  just 
like  any  other  Koman  citizens.  They  had  just  now  obtained 
the  conubium,  or  the  right  of  contracting  a  legal  marriage 
with  a  patrician.  They  had  also  the  suffragium,  or  the  right 
of  voting  in  the  assemblies  of  the  centuries  and  of  the  tribes. 
As  regards  the  honores,  or  the  right  of  holding  office,  they 
could  be  elected  to  the  lower  offices,  that  is,  could  be  chosen 
tribunes  of  the  people  and  aediles;  but  could  not  be  elected 
to  the  higher  offices,  that  is,  could  not  be  chosen  consuls  and 
quaestors.  What  the  plebeians  now  wanted  was  a  share  in  the 
higher  offices,  especially  in  the  consulship. 

The  Consular  Tribunes  (444  B.  c.). — Instead  of  allowing 
the  plebeians  a  direct  share  in  the  consulship,  the  patricians 
agreed  to  the  appointment  of  certain  new  officers,  who  should 
have  the  same  power  but  not  the  same  honor  as  the  consuls, 
and  who  could  be  elected  from  either  the  patrician  .or  the 
plebeian  class.  These  new  officers  were  called  "  military  trib- 
unes with  consular  power,"  sometimes  known  as  consular 
tribunes.  It  was  provided,  however,  that  the  senate  might 
in  any  given  year  determine  whether  consuls  or  consular 
tribunes  should  be  elected.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  son  a  to 
for  many  years  after  this  time  decided  in  favor  of  the  election 
of  consuls.  But  later,  as  the  plebeians  grew  in  political  in- 
fluence, the  election  of  consular  tribunes  became  the  rule. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE    KKITKL1C  295 

The  Censorship  and  the  New  Quaestors. — As  the  patricians 
saw  that  the  plebeians  were  growing  stronger,  they  resorted 
to  a  new  plan  to  keep  as  much  power  as  possible  in  their  own 
hands.  To  do  this,  they  created  another  new  office,  the  censor- 
ship (443  B.  c.),  and  transferred  to  the  two  censors  some  of  the 
most  important  powers  hitherto  exercised  by  the  consuls.  The 
censors  were  to  draw  up  the  census,  that  is,  to  make  an  esti- 
mate of  every  man's  property,  to  assign  each  man  to  a  proper 
class  in  the  centuries,  whether  he  belonged  to  the  equites  or  the 
pedites,  and  to  designate  who  was  entitled  to  sit  in  the  senate. 
The  new  censors  were  to  be  elected  every  five  years,  from  the 
patrician  class.  But  to  offset  this  advantage,  the  patricians 
agreed  that  there  should  be  two  new  qua3stors  (421  B.  c.),  to 
be  elected  from  the  plebeians. 

The  Licinian  Legislation  (367  B.  c.). — For  many  years 
after  the  creation  of  the  offices  just  mentioned  the  Koman 
people  were  engaged  in  war  with  their  foreign  enemies — dur- 
ing which  time  occurred  the  siege  and  capture  of  the  Etrus- 
can city  of  Ve'ii  (405-396  B.  c.)  and  the  destruction  of  Rome 
by  the  Gauls  (390  B.  c.).  These  wars  resulted  not  only  in 
distracting  the  attention  of  the  people  from  constitutional 
questions,  but  also  in  reducing  the  lower  classes  again  to  a 
condition  of  poverty  and  distress.  This  brought  economic 
questions  again  to  the  front.  The  new  reformers  were  called 
upon  not  simply  to  continue  the  work  in  the  direction  of 
political  equality,  but  to  devise  some  methods  to  relieve  their 
fellow-citizens  impoverished  by  the  recent  wars.1  The  cause 
of  the  people  was  at  last  taken  up  by  two  able  leaders,  the 
tribunes  C.  Licin'ius  Stolo  and  L.  Sextius.2  These  men 
brought  forward  the  following  proposals : 

lfrhe  first  attempt  to  relieve  the  distress  of  the  poor  is  said  to  have 
been  made  by  Marcus  Manlius,  who  had  defended  the  Capitol  at  the  time 
of  the  Gallic  invasion.  But  like  a  previous  reformer,  Spurius  Cassius 
(see  p.  201),  he  was  charged  with  treason  and  put  to  death. 

2The  abbreviations  for  the  most  common  Latin  proper  names  are  the 
following  :  C.  for  Gaius ;  Cn.  for  Gnseus  ;  L.  for  Lucius  ;  M.  for  Marcus ; 
P.  for  Publius  ;  Q.  for  Quintus  ;  ,Sp.  for  Spurius  ;  T.  for  Titus. 


296  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

(1)  To  relieve  debtors,  it  was  proposed  to  apply  the  inter- 
est already  paid  on  a  debt  to  the  reduction  of  the  principal 
and  to  allow  three  years  in  which  to  pay  the  rest  of  the 
debt. 

(2)  To  improve  the  condition  of  the  poorer  citizens,  it  was 
provided  that  the  occupation  of  the  public  lands  should  be 
open  to  all ;  that  no  person  should  be  allowed  to  hold  more  than 
five  hundred  jug  era  (about  300  acres) ;  and  that  the  number 
of  slaves  on  any  estate  should  be  limited,  so  that  free  laborers 
should  have  an  opportunity  to  work  for  wages. 

(3)  To  settle  the  political  strife  between  the  classes  it  was 
proposed  that  the  consular  tribunes  should  be  done  away  with, 
and  that  consuls  only  should  henceforth  be  elected,  one  of 
whom  must  be  a  plebeian. 

After  some  years  of  strife  these  proposals  became  laws ;  and 
one  of  their  authors,  L.  Sextius,  was  elected  the  first  plebeian 
consul.  On  account  of  the  importance  of  this  body  of  laws 
we  may  call  it  "  the  third  charter  of  Koman  liberty." 

Final  Equalization  of  the  Orders. — When  the  Licinian  laws 
were  finally  passed,  their  economic  provisions  were  soon  for- 
gotten, but  the  political  struggle  for  the  offices  still  con- 
tinued. With  the  loss  of  the  consulate,  the  patricians  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  away  its  judicial  power  and  conferring  it 
upon  a  new  officer  called  the  pra?tor  (367  B.  c.),  who  had  to  be 
a  patrician.  It  was  also  provided  that  there  should  be  two  patri- 
cian aediles  (called  curule  sediles)  to  offset  the  plebeian  rediles. 
But  it  was  not  many  years  before  all  the  offices  retained  by 
the  patricians  were  opened  to  the  plebeians,  and  political 
equality  was  fully  established  between  the  two  orders.1  The 
old  Roman  aristocracy  based  upon  blood  no  longer  possessed 
any  political  distinction.  The  union  of  patricians  and  plebe- 

*The  distinction  between  the  plebeian  and  the  curule  irdlleshlp  gradually 
passed  away.  The  dictatorship  was  opened  to  tin-  pl<>i>»'i;uis  in  :?."><;  ».  r.  ; 
the  censorship  in  :?r»1  B.  c. ;  jind  the  pratorship  in  '.W7  B.  c.  The  In- 
«l«'p"ii«|ctii  li-jis'.itivc  pmvcr  of  the  comitia  tributa  was  confirmed  by  the 
Horicnwinn  law  In  286  B.  C. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  REPUBLIC       297 

ians  into  one  compact  body  of  citizens  was  a  great  step  in  tho 
growth  of  that  principle  of  incorporation  which  finally  HUM  It; 
the  Romans  the  strongest  people  and  gave  them  the  best-organ- 
ized government  of  the  ancient  world. 

Summary  of  the  Republican  Constitution. — Following  is  a 
brief  outline  of  the  constitution  of  the  Roman  republic: 

I.  THE  SENATE — three  hundred  members,  chosen  by  the  censor, 
having1    control    of    the    religion    and    the    finances,    of    the 
provinces  and  of  foreign  affairs,  and  generally  the  approval 
of  laws  submitted  to  the  assemblies  (auctoritas  patrum). 

II.  THE  POPULAR  ASSEMBLIES. 

1.  The   Comitia   Curiata — assembly  of  the  curies,  with,  gen- 
erally speaking1,  no  power  except  formally  to  confer  the 
imperiutn. 

2.  The  Comitia  Centuriata — assembly  of  the  centuries,  presided 
over  by  an  officer  having"  the  imperium  (consul,  praetor,  or 
dictator);   having-  the  power  to  elect  the  consuls,  censors, 
and  praetors,  to  declare  war,  to  act  upon  laws  submitted  to 
it,  and  to  decide  on  appeals  in  capital  cases. 

3.  The  Comitia  Tributa — assembly  of  the  tribes,  presided  over 
by  a  tribune,  or  other  high  magistrate;   having  power  to 
elect  the  curule  aediles  and  quaestors  and  to  pass  laws  sub- 
mitted to  it. 

4.  The  Concilium  Plebis — originally  an  assembly  of  the  plebe- 

ians only;  having  power  to  elect  the  tribunes  and  plebeian 
aediles  and  to  pass  laws  at  first  for  the  plebeians  and  after- 
ward for  the  whole  people.  The  relation  of  this  assembly 
to  the  comitia  tributa  is  not  clear  (p.  290,  note). 

III.  THE  MAGISTRATES. 

1.  The  'Curule  Magistrates. 

(1)  The    Consuls — two,    presided    alternately    over    the 
senate,    proposed    laws   to    the    assemblies,    and    com- 
manded the  armies. 

(2)  The   Dictator — one,   having    supreme    administrative 
power  for  not  more  than  six  months;  appointed  by  the 
consul  when  directed  by  the  senate;   assisted  by  the 
Master  of  Horse  (Magister  Equitum). 

(3)  The  Praetor — at  first  one,  prwtor  urbanus,  with  judicial 
authority  in  cases  between  citizens;    afterward  a  sec- 
ond, pr&tor  peregrinus,  to  judge  between  foreigners  or 
between  citizens  and  foreigners. 

(4)  The  Censors — two,  with  power  to  make  the  census, 
assess    the    property,    classify    the    people,    revise    the 
senatorial  list,  and  supervise  the  public  morals. 

(5)  The  Curule  JEdiles — two,  having  charge  of  the  public 
works  and  the  public  records. 


298  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

2.  The  Non-Curule  Magistrates. 

(1)  The  Plebeian  ^Ediles — two,  having1  powers  like  the 

curule  aediles. 
•    (2)  The    Plebeian    Tribunes — two,    afterward   ten,   with 

power  of  veto  and  intercession. 
(3)  The  Quaestors — two,  afterward  eight,  having  charge 

of  the  treasury  and  public  accounts. 

All  these  magistrates  were  elected  annually,  except  (1)  the 
censors,  who  were  elected  every  five  years  to  hold  office  for  a  year 
and  a  half,  and  (2)  the  dictator,  who  was  appointed  only  as 
occasion  required. 

SYNOPSIS   FOR   REVIEW 

I.  THE  EARLY  REPUBLICAN  GOVERNMENT. — The  Two  Consuls. — 
The    Dictatorship.— The    New    Senators.— The    Popular    Assem- 
blies.— The  Laws  of  Valerius  Poplicola. 

II.  THE    STRUGGLE    FOR    ECONOMIC    RIGHTS. — Relation    of   the 
Patricians  to  the  Plebeians. — Economic  Distress  of  the  Plebeians. 
— First  Secession  of   the  Plebeians. — The  Tribunes  of  the   Peo- 
ple.— The  Plebeian  Assembly;  the  Comitia  Tributa. — The  Agrarian 
Proposal  of  Spurius  Cassius. 

III.  THE    STRUGGLE    FOR    EQUAL    LAWS. — The    Demand    for    a 
Written  Code.— The  Decemvirs  and  the  XII.  Tables.— The  Second 
Secession    and    Overthrow    of    the    Decemvirate. — The    Valerio- 
Horatian  Laws. — The  Right  of  Intermarriage. 

IV.  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  POLITICAL  EQUALITY. — Progress  of  the 
Plebeians. — The    Consular    Tribunes. — The    Censorship    and    the 
New  Quaestors. — The  Licinian  Legislation. — Final  Equalization  of 
the  Orders. — Summary  of  the  Republican  Constitution. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Schuckburgh,   Ch.    8,   "Constitutional   History   from    509   to   390 

B.  c."  (18).1 
Pelham,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Foundation  of  the  Republic  and  the 

Struggle  between  the  Orders"   (18). 
How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  5,  "Institutions  of  the  New  Republic";  Ch.  12, 

"The  Licinian  Laws  and  the  Equalization  of  the  Orders"  (18). 
Taylor,  Chs.  3-5,  "Struggle  between  the  Orders"  (22). 
Ihne,  Early  Rome,  Ch.  13,  "Tribunes  of  the  People"  (18). 
Granrud,  Second  Period,  "The  Equalization  of  the  Orders"  (22). 
Greenidge,  Public  Life,  Ch.  2,  "Growth  of  the  Republican  Con- 

stitution"  (22). 
Mommsen,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  1,  "Changes  of  the  Constitution"; 

Ch.  2,  "The  Tribunate  of  the  Plebs";  Ch.  3,  "Equalization  of 

the  Orders"  (18). 
Livy,  Bk.  II.,  Chs.  27-33  (first  secession  of  the  plebeians);  Bk.  III., 

Chs.  33-34  (the  decemvirate)  (25). 
Plutarch,  "Publicola"  (:.'•.). 

'Tho   fiKuro   In    p.-irr-nt  ti.-sis   rofors   to  the  number  of  the  topic  in   the 
\vln-nj  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  II,     THE  EXPANSION  OF  THE  EOMAN  KEPUBLIO 
(343-133  B.  0.) 


CHAPTER    XX 

THE  CONSOLIDATION  OF  ITALY 
I.     CONQUEST  OF  THE  ITALIAN  PENINSULA 

Character  of  the  New  Period. — We  have  traced  the  steps  by 
which  the  early  Roman  state  was  gradually  developed — by  the 
union  of  the  hill  settlements  on  the  Tiber,  and  by  the  incorpo- 
ration of  the  plebeians  into  the  body  politic.  We  are  now  to 
trace  the  steps  by  which  this  early  city  state  was  gradually 
enlarged  until  it  took  in  the  whole  of  Italy  and  a  large  part 
of  the "  Mediterranean  coasts.  The  next  period  is,  therefore, 
largely  a  period  of  wars  and  conquests.  But  it  is  also  a  period 
in  which  Borne  learned  new  lessons  of  government  and  law, 
and  in  which  she  came  into  contact  with  more  civilized  peoples 
and  became  herself  more  civilized. 

The  Early  Wars  of  Rome. — Previous  to  the  beginning  of 
this  period  of  conquest,  Home  had  already  been  surrounded 
by  enemies,  who  looked  with  envy  upon  her  growing  power  and 
with  whom  she  was  obliged  either  to  make  treaties  or  to  wage 
wars.  Nearest  to  the^city  were  the  Latins,  who  had  asserted 
their  independence  at  the  time  when  the  kingship  was  abol- 
ished. On  the  eastern  and  southern  borders  of  Latium  were 
che  ^Equians,  the  Hernicans,  and  the  Volscians  (map,  p.  284). 
Through  a  treaty  of  alliance,  which  was  formed  by  Sp.  Cassius 

299 


300  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

with  the  Latins  and  Hernicans,  Rome  was  able  to  wage  success- 
ful wars  with  the  ^Equians  and  the  Volscians.1  But  the  most 
important  of  these  early  wars  were  those  in  which  the  city  of 
Yeii  was  captured  from  the  Etruscans,  and  in  which  the  city 
of  Rome  was  destroyed  by  the  Gauls. 

(1)  Veii  was  situated  northwest  of  the  Tiber  and  was  the 
strongest  city  of  the  Etruscans.    In  order  to  recover  the  terri- 
tory north  of  the  Tiber  which  they  had  held  under  the  Etrus- 
can kings  and  which  they  had  lost  with  the  overthrow  of  the 
kingdom,  the  Romans  laid  siege  to  this  city.    The  siege  lasted 
for  nearly  ten  years  (405-396  B.  c.).     Veii  was  finally  cap- 
tured by  the  dictator  Camillus,  and  furnished  to  the  Romans 
a  strong  foothold  in  Etruria. 

(2)  Shortly  after  the  capture  of  Veii,  Italy  was  invaded 
by  the  Gauls  who  had  settled  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  from 
whom  this  territory  was  called  Cisalpine  Gaul.     The  Romans 
met  these  fierce  invaders  near  the  little  river  Allia,  about  eleven 
miles  north  of  the  city,  and  suffered  a  terrible  defeat.     The 
Gauls  pressed  on,  and  captured  and  burned  the  city  (390  B.  c.). 
Only  the  Capitol  was  saved,  which  was  defended  by  Marcus 
Manlius.    After  the  retreat  of  the  Gauls,  the  Romans  quickly 
rebuilt  their  city.     The  neighboring  peoples  again  made  war 
on  Rome,  but  the  city  succeeded  in  recovering  most  of  its 
former  possessions.    By  the  year  343  B.  c.,  the  Roman  territory 
included  not  only  the  greater  part  of  Latium,  but  also  lands 
in  the  Volscian  country  and  in  southern  Etruria. 

The  First  Samnite  War  (343-341  B.  c.).— In  extending  their 
territory  to  the  south,  the  Romans  now  came  into  contact  with 

'The  history  of  the  Volscian  wars  Is  made  Interesting  by  the  story  of 
foriola'nus,  which  tells  us  that  this  young  patrician  incurred  the  hatred  of 
the  common  people,  fled  to  the  Volscians,  and  led  an  army  against  his  native 
city;  that  his  mother  and  his  wife  went  to  the  Volscian  camp  :m<l  pleaded 
with  him  to  cease  his  wars:  and  that  Rome  was  thus  saved.  The  memory 
of  the  .Kqulan  wars  Is  preserved  in  the  story  of  the  Roman  patriot  cin- 
rinna'tiiH,  who  was  called  from  his  country  home  to  rescue  tin-  Roman 
army  from  adetile  win-re  it  was  surrounded  l>.\  the  .Kipiians  .-Mid  threatened 
With  destruction  :  ami  who  with  ^rent  speed  and  skill  conquered  the 
army  and  returned  the  next  evening  to  Home  in  triumph. 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF    ITALY  301 

the  Samnites,  the  most  warlike  people  of  central  Italy.  Some 
of  the  Samnite  tribes  had  already  moved  from  their  mountain 
home  and  settled  in  Campania,  having  taken  possession  of  the 
old  Etruscan  city  of  Cap'ua  and  the  Greek  city  of  Cumse  (map, 
p.  302).  The  Samnites  of  Campania  soon  became  refined  by 
their  contact  with  the  higher  culture  of  the  Greeks  and  Etrus- 
cans, and  lost  all  sympathy  with  their  kinsmen  of  the  moun- 
tains. This  separation  led  to  quarrels  between  the  older  Sam- 
nites and  the  Campanians,  and  the  latter  appealed  to  Eome  for 
protection.  In  answer  to  this  appeal  Eome,  with  the  support 
of  her  Latin  allies,  invaded  Campania,  and  after  two  cam- 
paigns drove  out  the  Samnites.  As  a  result  of  this  war  Rome 
assumed  the  position  of  protector  of  the  Campanian  cities, 
which  were  thus  brought  under  her  power. 

The  Great  Latin  War  (340-338  B.  c.). — Rome  was  next 
compelled  to  face  a  danger  which  threatened  her  position  in 
Latium.  Her  Latin  allies,  who  had  fought  with  her  in  the  late 
war,  demanded  an  equal  share  in  the  Roman  government  and  in 
the  spoils  of  conquest.  This  demand  was  refused;  and  the 
spirit  of  revolt  spread  not  only  throughout  the  cities  of  Latium, 
but  among  the  newly  conquered  cities  of  Campania.  The 
Roman  people,  being  now  well  united  and  organized,  carried 
on  a  vigorous  and  successful  war  against  the  insurgents.  A 
decisive  battle  was  fought  near  Mt.  Vesuvius,  where,  according 
to  tradition,  the  consul  Decius  Mus  secured  a  victory  at  the 
cost  of  his  own  life.  The  Latin  confederacy  was  finally  broken 
up;  all  connection  between  the  cities  was  destroyed;  and  each 
town  was  made  subject  directly  to  Rome.  This  policy  of  isola- 
tion prevented  the  cities  from  uniting  with  one  another  and 
secured  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  authority. 

The  Second  Samnite  War  (326-304  B.  c.). — After  a  few 
years  of  peace  the  Romans  and  the  Samnites  became  embroiled 
in  another  war,  which  led  to  a  struggle  for  supremacy  in  cen- 
tral Italy.  This  war  was  brought  on  by  the  attempt  of  the 
Samnites  to  garrison  one  of  the  Campanian  cities  (Palasop'olis) 


302 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


in  spite  of  the  protest  of  Eome.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war 
Palaeopolis  was  besieged  and  captured  by  the  consul  Publilius 
Philo,  who  was  kept  in  command  beyond  the  term  of  his  office, 
and  was  hence  the  first  to  receive  the  title  of  "  proconsul." 
The  Romans  formed  alliances  with  the  Apulians  and  Lucani- 
ans,  and  took  possession  of  the  strong  city  of  Luce'ria  in 
Apulia.  But  they  soon  suffered  a  most  terrible  defeat  at  the 
Caudine  Forks  (321  B.  c.).  Here  their  army  was  entrapped 


\ADRIATIC       SEA 


iJP^  If,      .    ..Cult 


•cP 


SCALE  OF  MILES 

0      To     25     §5      5i     So 


T-  \=».-^-    --'      x--s 

&t 

^pL  u  c  XN"' A 


CENTRAL  ITALY — THE  SAMNITE  WARS 

in  a  mountain  pass,  and  the  commanding  consuls  were  obliged 
to  surrender  and  sign  a  treaty  of  peace.  The  Eoman  senate, 
however,  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  and  the  war  continued. 
The  Samnites  were  now  joined  by  the  Etruscans,  who  wished 
to  recover  the  lost  portions  of  their  own  territory.  The  series 
of  disasters  which  now  followed  the  Roman  arms  was  at  last 
repaired  by  the  great  hero  of  the  \\  11-.  FaMns  Maxinius  Rullia'- 
nus,  who  defeated  the  Etruscans  at  Lako  Vadimo'nis.  The 
Samnites  were  again  driven  out  of  Campania,  and  followed  into 
their  own  territory,  where  their  capital  city.  lUtvia'nuni.  was 
captured.  As  a  result  of  this  war  the  Rcrnans  reestablished 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF    ITALY 


303 


and  strengthened  their  authority  in  Campania  and  Etruria, 
and  restricted  the  Samnites  to  their  original  boundaries  in 
Samnium. 

The  Third  Samnite  War  (298-290  B.  c.).— The  peace  which 
followed  the  second  Samnite  war  proved  to  be  nothing  more 
than  a  truce.  The  question  of  supremacy  in  central  Italy  was 
yet  to  be  decided.  The  Samnites  were  determined  to  bring  to 
their  aid  other  nations  of  Italy — the  Lucanians  on  the  south, 
and  the  Etruscans,  Umbrians,  and  Gauls  on  the  north — and 
by  such  a  coalition  to  overthrow  the  Roman  power.  The  at- 
tempt of  the  Samnites  to  get  control  of  Lucania  led  to  a  dec- 
laration of  war  by  Rome.  The  Samnites  placed  three  armies  in 
the  field — one  to  defend  Samnium,  one  to  invade  Campania, 
and  the  third  to 
march  into  Etruria. 
This  last  army  was 
expected  to  join  with 
the  Etruscans,  the 
Umbrians,  and  the 
Gauls  and  to  attack 
Rome  from  the 
north.  The  Roman 
forces  marched  into 
Etruria  under  Fa- 
bius  Maximus  Rul- 
lianus,  who  had  won 
the  battle  at  Lake 
Vadimonis,  and 
Decius  Mus,  the  son  of  the  hero  who  sacrificed  himself  in  the 
battle  of  Mt.  Vesuvius.  The  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  were 
soon  scattered;  and  the  Samnites  and  Gauls  retreated  across 
the  Apennines  to  Senti'num.  Here  was  fought  the  decisive 
battle  (295  B.  c.).  The  Roman  victory  was  due,  according  to 
tradition,  to  the  heroic  efforts  of  Decius,  who,  following  the 
example  of  his  father,  sacrificed  himself  in  order  to  maintain 

MOREY'S   ANCIENT   HIST. 18 


SCALE  OF  MILES 

6    to  20  30  40  50 


WAR  IN  ETRURIA 


304 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


the  Roman  lines.  This  battle  was  followed  by  the  dispersion 
of  the  Gauls,  and,  after  a  few  years  of  hopeless  resistance,  by 
the  submission  of  the  Samnites.  Rome  thus  became  the  ruling 
power  of  the  peninsula  from  Cisalpine  Gaul  on  the  north  to 
Magna  Grsecia  on  the  south. 

War  with  Tarentum  and  Pyrrhus  (280-275  B.  c.). — The 
most  important  of  the  Greek  cities  in  southern  Italy  was  Ta- 
rentum. This  city  was  alarmed  at  the  rapid  progress  made  by 
the  Romans  along  the  southern  coasts.  The  appearance  of  a 

Roman  squadron  in  the  bay  of  Ta- 
rentum— contrary  to  an  existing 
treaty — angered  the  inhabitants  of 
the  cit^y,  who  attacked  the  intruding 
vessels,  killed  the  admiral,  and  de- 
stroyed a  number  of  the  ships.  A 
Roman  embassy  sent  to  Tarentum 
to  demand  satisfaction  was  in- 
sulted. These  acts  led  to  a  declara- 
tion of  war  by  the  Romans.  Taren- 
tum then  turned  to  Greece  for  help, 
and  called  upon  Pyrrhus,  the  king 
of  Epirus.  Pyrrhus  was  the  most 
able  general  that  had  appeared  since 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
He  hoped  to  rival  the  work  of  Alex- 
ander by  building  up  an  empire  in 
the  West.  He  was,  therefore,  ready 
to  respond  to  the  call  of  Tarentum, 
and  soon  landed  in  Italy  with  an  army  of  twenty-five  thousand 
men  and  twenty  elephants.  . 

The  first  battle  between  the  Roman  and  the  Greek  soldiers 
took  place  at  Heracle'a,  not  far  from  Tarentum  (280  B.  c.); 
and  it  was  here  that  the  Roman  army  first  came  into  contact 
with  the  Macedonian  phalanx.  The  Romans  were  defeated, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  panic  caused  by  the  elephants  which 


PYRRHUS 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF   ITALY 


305 


Pyrrhus  had  brought  with  him.  The  victory  of  Pyrrhus  was 
attended  with  great  loss  to  his  own  army;  and  he  sent  his  am- 
bassador, Cin'eas,  to  Rome,  asking  for  terms  of  peace.  But  the 
Roman  senate,  under  the  influence  of  the  blind  old  sensor 
Appius  Claudius,  refused  to  make  peace  with  an  enemy  on 


A   D  R  I  A    TIC 

SEA 


TYRRHENIAN 


MAGNA  GR/ECJA — THE  WAR  WITH  PYRRHUS 

Italian  soil.  Pyrrhus  then  gathered  to  his  support  the  peoples 
of  southern  Italy,  including  the  Samnites;  he  marched  into 
Apulia,  and  at  Asculum  again  defeated  the  Roman  army  (279 
B.  c.).  Discouraged  by  the  great  losses  incurred  in  these  two 
"  Pyrrhic  victories,"  he  crossed  over  into  Sicily,  hoping  to  gain 
greater  renown  by  rescuing  his  Greek  kinsmen  from  the 


306  THE    KOMAN    WORLD 

Carthaginian  power.  Although  at  first  successful,  he  failed 
to  receive  the  expected  support  from  the  Greek  cities.  He  re- 
turned to  Italy,  marched  north  into  Samnium,  and  suffered  a 
severe  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Roman  consul  Curius  Denta'- 
tus  (275  B.  c.).  He  then  withdrew  from  Italy,  and  in  a  short 
time  Tarentum  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  (272  B.  c.). 
Within  the  next  few  years  the  spirit  of  revolt  which  lingered  in 
certain  parts  of  Italy  was  suppressed ;  and  the  Roman  authority 
was  completely  established  from  the  Rubicon  to  the  Sicilian 
strait. 

II.     POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  ITALY 

The  Roman  Policy  of  Government. — To  understand  how 
Rome  conquered  the  peoples  of  Italy  is  less  important  than  to 
understand  how  she  governed  these  peoples  after  they  were 
conquered.  From  the  time  that  she  broke  up  the  Latin  league 
until  she  brought  Italy  under  her  control,  she  was  gradually 
developing  that  remarkable  capacity  for  political  organization 
which  finally  made  her  the  greatest  governing  power  of  the 
ancient  world.  We  must  not  suppose  that  she  had  from  the 
first  a  completely  formed  policy  of  government.  On  the  con- 
trary, this  policy  was  growing  with  her  growth,  and  becoming 
more  clearly  defined  with  her  increasing  dominion.  So  far 
as  we  are  able  to  define  her  general  method  of  governing  we 
might  say  that  it  included  three  important  features:  (1)  isola- 
tion, or  the  separation  of  the  subject  communities  from  one  an- 
other so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  united  resistance:  (2) 
local  government,  or  the  granting  to  each  community  the  ri^rhi 
to  manage  its  own  local  affairs  so  far  as  this  was  consistent 
with  Roman  supremacy;  (3)  gradual  incorporation,  or  the  con- 
ferring upon  different  communities,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
of  the  rights  of  citizenship. 

The  Sovereign  and  Subject  Communities. — If  we  would 
comprehend  tli"  political  system  which  grew  up  in  Italy,  we 
must  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  distinction  between  the  peonle 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF    ITALY  307 

who  made  up  the  sovereign  body  of  the  state,  and  the  people 
who  made  up  the  subject  communities  of  Italy.  Just  as  in 
early  times  we  saw  two  distinct  bodies,  the  patrician  body, 
which  ruled  the  state,  and  the  plebeian  body,  which  was  sub- 
ject to  the  state ;  so  now  we  shall  see,  on  the  one  hand,  a  ruling 
body  of  citizens,  who  lived  in  and  outside  the  city  upon  the 
Roman  domain  (ager  Romanus),  and  on  the  other  hand,  a  sub- 
ject body  of  people,  living  in  towns  and  cities  throughout  the 
rest  of  Italy.  In  other  words,  we  shall  see  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory and  people  incorporated  into  the  state,  and  another  part 
still  unincorporated — the  one  a  sovereign  community,  and  the 
other  comprising  a  number  of  subject  communities. 

The  Roman  State ;  Ager  Komanus. — The  sovereign  commu- 
nity, which  made  up  the  Eoman  state  proper,  comprised  the 
people  who  lived  upon  the  Roman  domain  (ager  Romanus). 
In  other  words,  the  Roman  domain,  or  ager  Romanus,  was  that 
part  of  the  territory  in  whieh  the  people  were  incorporated  into 
the  state,  and  received  the  rights  as  well  as  the  burdens  of  citi- 
zenship. This  domain  land,  or  incorporated  territory,  had 
been  gradually  growing  while  the  conquest  of  Italy  was  going 
on.  It  now  included,  speaking  generally,  the  most  of  Latium, 
northern  Campania,  southern  Etruria,  the  Sabine  country, 
Picenum,  and  a  part  of  Umbria.  There  were  a  few  towns 
within  this  area,  like  Tibur  and  PraBiies'te.  which  were  not  in- 
corporated, and  hence  not  a  part  of  the  domain  land,  but  re- 
tained the  position  of  subject  allies.  The  ager  Romanus  in- 
cluded the  local  tribes,  as  well  as  the  Roman  colonies  and  the 
municipia. 

The  Thirty-three  Tribes.— The  local  tribes  (p.  280)  had 
now  increased  in  number  to  thirty-three.  They  included  four 
urban  tribes,  that  is,  the  wards  of  the  city,  and  twenty-nine 
rural  tribes,  which  were  like  townships  in  the  country.  All 
the  persons  who  lived  in  these  tribal  districts  and  were  en- 
rolled, formed  a  part  of  the  sovereign  body  of  the  Roman 
people;  that  is,  they  had  not  only  the  private  rights,  but  the 


308  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

public  rights  of  Roman  citizens,  having  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, in  the  holding  of  office,  in  the  election  of  magistrates, 
and  in  the  making  of  the  laws.1 

The  Koman  Colonies. — The  early  colonies  which  Rome  sent 
out  were  allowed  to  retain  all  their  rights  of  citizenship,  being 
permitted  even  to  come  to  Rome  at  any  time  to  vote  and  help 
make  the  laws.  These  colonies  of  Roman  citizens  thus  formed 
a  part  of  the  sovereign  state;  and  their  territory,  wherever  it 
might  be  situated,  was  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  ager  Romanus. 
Such  Roman  colonies  were  the  maritime  garrisons  along  the 
seacoast,  the  most  important  of  which  were  situated  on  the 
shores  of  Latium  and  of  adjoining  lands. 

The  Roman  Municipia. — Certain  conquered  towns  were  in- 
corporated into  the  state,  and  yet  were  allowed  to  retain  their 
rights  of  local  government.  They  accepted  the  sovereignty  of 
Rome  and  their  inhabitants  received  the  rights  of  Roman 
citizens.  In  some  cases  the  inhabitants  received  the  full  rights 
of  citizenship,  including  the  public  rights,  being  permitted  to 
be  enrolled  and  to  vote  with  the  local  tribes.  In  other 
cases,  they  received  only  the  private  rights  (civitas  sine  suf- 
fragio),  being  permitted  to  trade  and  to  intermarry  with 
Roman  citizens,  and  made  subject  to  all  the  burdens  of  Ro- 
man citizens,  but  not  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  govern- 
ment. Under  certain  circumstances  a  town,  as  a  penalty, 
might  be  deprived  of  its  local  government  and  placed  under  a 
prefect — in  which  case  it  would  be  called  a  "  prefecture."  2 

The  Subject  Communities. — Over  against  this  sovereign 
body  of  citizens,  living  upon  the  ager  Tlomanm  and  made  up  of 

1  The  number  of  the  tribes  was  afterward  increased  to  thirty-five,  which 
was  the  maximum  number. 

2Tb.ere  were  very  few  towns  that  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
prefectures.  The  majority  of  towns,  however,  within  the  Roman  domain 
were  regarded  as  munlcipia,  either  of  the  first  or  of  the  second  class.  The 
loyalty  of  a  municipal  town  would  be  stimulated,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the 
hope  of  attaining  to  the  first  class,  or  of  remaining  there;  or,  on  HIP  other 
hand,  by  the  fear  of  being  reduced  to  a  prefecture.  The  Roman  "munici- 
pality" as  a  self-governing  community  incorporated  into  the  state,  was  one 
of  the  most  advanced  features  of  the  Roman  system  of  government. 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF   ITALY  309 

the  local  tribes,  the  Roman  colonies,  and  the  municipia,were  the 
subject  communities  scattered  throughout  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  peninsula.  The  inhabitants  of  this  territory  had  no 
share  in  the  Roman  government.  Neither  could  they  declare 
war,  make  peace,  form  alliances,  or  coin  money,  without  the 
consent  of  Rome.  Although  they  might  have  many  privileges 
given  to  them,  and  might  govern  themselves  in  their  own  cities, 
they  formed  no  part  of  the  sovereign  body  of  the  Roman  people. 
They  comprised  the  Latin  colonies  and  the  Italian  allies. 

The  Latin  Colonies  were  the  military  garrisons  which  Rome 
sent  out  to  hold  in  subjection  a  conquered  city  or  territory. 
They  were  generally  made  up  of  veteran  soldiers,  or  sometimes 
of  poor  Roman  citizens,  who  were  placed  upon  the  conquered 
land  and  who  ruled  the  conquered  people.  But  such  garrisons 
did  not  retain  the  full  rights  of  citizens.  They  lost  the  politi- 
cal rights,  and  generally  the  conubium,  but  retained  the  com- 
mercium.  These  colonies  carried  with  them  the  Latin  lan- 
guage and  the  Roman  spirit,  and  were  thus  means  of  extending 
Roman  institutions.1 

The  Italian  Allies. — The  largest  part  of  the  subject  commu- 
nities comprised  the  Italian  cities  which  were  conquered  and 
left  free  to  govern  themselves, but  which  were  bound  to  Rome  by 
a  special  treaty.  They  were  obliged  to  recognize  the  sovereign 
power  of  Rome.  They  were  not  subject  to  the  land  tax  which 
fell  upon  Roman  citizens,  but  were  obliged  to  furnish  troops 
for  the  Roman  army  in  times  of  war.  These  cities  of  Italy, 
thus  held  in  subjection  to  Rome  by  a  special  treaty,  were 
known  as  federated  cities  (civitates  fwderatce),  or  simply  as 
allies  (socii)',  they  formed  the  most  important  part  of  the 
Italian  population  not  incorporated  into  the  Roman  state.2 

1  Important  Latin  colonies  were  Lucerla  and  Venusla  In  Apulia,  Beneven- 
tum  in  Samnium,  Psestum  in  Lucania,  Hadria  in  Picenum,  and  Arim'inum 
in  Umbria  (maps,  pp.  302,^03,  305). 

2  This  organization  of  Italy  continued  substantially  until  the  Social  war 
(90  B.  c.).    For  the  territorial  divisions  of  Italy  under  this  system  see  map, 
page  308. 


310 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

III.     THE  MILITARY  SYSTEM 


The  Roman  Army. — The  conquest  of  Italy  was  due,  in  great 
measure,  to  the  efficiency  of  the  Roman  army.  The  strength 
of  the  Roman  government,  too,  depended  upon  the  army, 
which  was  the  real  support  of  the  civil  power.  By  their  con- 
quests the  Romans  became  a  nation  of  warriors.  Every  citizen 
between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty-five  was  obliged  to 


SOLDIERS  AND  THEIR  BOOTY 

serve  in  the  army  when  the  public  service  required  it.  In 
early  times  the  wars  lasted  only  for  a  short  period,  and  con- 
sisted in  ravaging  the  fields  of  the  enemy ;  and  the  soldier's  re- 
ward was  the  booty  which  he  was  able  to  capture.  But  after 
the  siege  of  Veii,  the  term  of  service  became  longer,  and  it  be- 
came necessary  to  give  to  the  soldiers  regular  pay.  This  pay, 
with  the  prospect  of  plunder  and  of  a  share  in  the  allotment  of 
conquered  land,  furnished  a  strong  motive  to  render  faithful 
service. 

Divisions  of  the  Army. — Tn  case  of  war  it  was  custom- 
ary to  raise  four  legions,  two  for  each  consul.  Each  legion 
contained  thirty  maniples,  or  companies,  of  lie;i\  v-iirnied 
troops, — twenty  maniples  consisting  of  one  hundred  and 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF    ITALY  311 

twenty  men  each,  and  ten  maniples  of  sixty  men  each, — mak- 
ing in  all  three  thousand  heavy-armed  troops.  There  were  also 
twelve  hundred  light-armed  troops,  not  organized  in  maniples. 
The  whole  number  of  men  in  a  legion  was  therefore  forty-two 
hundred.  To  each  legion  was  usually  joined  a  body  of  cavalry, 
numbering  three  hundred  men.  After  the  reduction  of  Latium 
and  Italy,  the  allied  cities  were  also  obliged  to  furnish  a  certain 
number  of  men,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 

Order  of  Battle. — In  ancient  times  the  Romans  fought  in 
the  manner  of  the  Greek  phalanx,  in  a  solid  square.  This  ar- 
rangement was  well  suited  to  withstand  an  attack  on  a  level 
plain,  but  it  was  not  adapted  to  aggressive  warfare.  About 
the  time  of  Camillus,  the  Romans  introduced  the  more  open 
order  of  "  maniples."  When  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle,  the 
legion  was  arranged  in  three  lines:  first,  the  hastati,  made  up 
of  young  men;  second,  the  priricipes,  composed  of  the  more 
experienced  soldiers;  and,  third,  the  triarii,  which  comprised 
the  veterans,  capable  of  supporting  the  other  two  lines.  Each 
line  was  composed  of  ten  maniples,  those  of  the  first  two  lines 
consisting  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  men  each,  and  those  of 
the  third  line  consisting  of  sixty  men  each;  the  maniples,  or 
companies,  in  each  line  were  so  arranged  that  they  were  op- 
posite the  spaces  in  the  next  line,  as  follows: 

1.  Hastati 

2.  Principes 

3.  Triarii       - 

This  arrangement  enabled  the  companies  in  front  to  retreat 
into  the  spaces  in  the  rear,  or  the  companies  in  the  rear  to 
advance  to  the  spaces  in  front.  Behind  the  third  lino  usually 
fought  the  light-armed  and  less  experienced  soldiers  (rorarii 
and  accensi).  Each  maniple  carried  its  own  ensign;  and  the 
legion  carried  a  standard  surmounted  with  a  silver  eagle. 

Armor  and  Weapons. — The  defensive  armor  of  all  the  three 
lines  was  alike — a  coat  of  mail  for  the  breast,  a  brass  helmet 
for  the  head,  greaves  for  the  legs,  and  a  large  oblong  shield 


312 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


carried  upon  the  left  arm.  For  offensive  weapons,  each  man 
carried  a  short  sword,  which  could  be  used  for  cutting  or 
thrusting.  The  soldiers  in  the  first  two  lines  each  had  also  two 
javelins,  to  be  hurled  at  the  enemy  before  coming  into  close 
quarters;  and  those  of  the  third  line  each  had  a  long  lance, 
which  could  be  used  for  piercing.  It  was  with  such  arms  as 
these  that  the  Koman  soldiers  conquered  Italy. 

Military  Rewards  and  Honors. — The  Romans  encouraged 
the  soldiers  with  rewards  for  their  bravery.  These  were  be- 
stowed by  the  general  in  the 
presence  of  the  whole  army. 
The  highest  individual  reward 
was  the  "  civic  crown,"  made 
of  oak  leaves,  given  to  him 
who  had  saved  the  life  of  a 
fellow-citizen  on  the  battle- 
field. Other  suitable  rewards, 
such  as  golden  crowns,  ban- 
ners of  different  colors,  and 
ornaments,  were  bestowed  for 
singular  bravery.  The  high- 
est military  honor  which  the 
Roman  state  could  bestow  was  a  "  triumph  " — a  solemn  pro- 
cession, decreed  by  the  senate,  in  which  the  victorious  general, 
with  his  army,  marched  through  the  city  to  the  Capitol,  bear- 
ing in  his  train  the  trophies  of  war. 

Military  Koads. — An  important  part  of  the  military  system 
of  Rome  was  the  network  of  military  roads  by  which  her  armies 
and  munitions  of  war  could  be  sent  into  every  part  of  Italy. 
The  first  military  road  was  the  Appian  Way  (via  Appia),  built 
by  Appius  Claudius  during  the  Samnite  wars.  It  connected 
Rome  with  Capua,  and  was  afterward  extended  to  Beneventum 
and  Venusia,  and  finally  as  far  as  Brundisium.  This  fur- 
nished a  model  for  the  roads  which  were  subsequently  laid  out 
to  other  points  in  Italy.  Although  we  read  of  roads  in  Persia 


ROMAN  STANDARDS 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    OF    ITALY 


313 


(p.  67)  and  in  other  ancient  countries,  the  Romans  were  prob- 
ably the  first  people  to  reduce  road-making  to  an  art.  They 
spared  no  labor  and  expense  to  make  these  highways  straight, 
smooth,  and  durable.  The  roads  were  laid  out  upon  the  most 
direct  and  level  course  from  city  to  city,  without  regard  to 
natural  obstacles,  piercing  mountains  and  spanning  morasses 


APPIAN  WAY 

and  rivers.  The  surface  of  the  road  was  a  pavement  con- 
structed of  polygonal  slabs  of  hard  rock,  nicely  fitted  together ; 
and  this  was  supported  by  strata  of  stones  and  gravel  laid  in 
cement  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  or  more,  and  having  a  width 
of  about  fifteen  feet.  So  durable  were  these  highways  that  the 
remains  of  many  of  them  exist  to  the  present  day.  After  a 
time  they  came  to  be  used  by  the  Romans  not  merely  for  the 
movement  of  troops,  but  as  pathways  of  trade  and  also  as 
lines  of  communication,  or  post-roads.  The  Roman  r.oads 
were  thus  a  means  of  binding  together  the  different  parts  of 


314  THE   ROMAN   WOULD 

the  Roman  state,  securing  the  dominion  of  Rome  and  extend- 
ing her  civilization. 

SYNOPSIS   FOE-    BEVIEW 

I.  CONQUEST  OF  THE  ITALIAN  PENINSULA.— Character  of  the  New 
Period.— The  Early  Wars  of  Rome.— The  First  Samnite  War.— 
The   Great  Latin   War.— The   Second   Samnite   War.— The   Third 
Samnite  War. — The  War  with  Tarentum  and  Pyrrhus. 

II.  POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  ITALY. — The  Roman  Policy  of 
Government. — The    Sovereign    and    Subject    Communities. — The 
Roman    State;    Agcr    flowzanws.— The    Thirty-three    Tribes.— The 
Roman  Colonies. — The  Roman  Munidpia. — The  Subject  Commu- 
nities.—The  Latin  Colonies.— The  Italian  Allies. 

III.  THE  MILITARY  SYSTEM. — The  Roman  Army. — Divisions  of 
the  Army. — Order  of  Battle. — Armor  and  Weapons. — Military  Re- 
wards and  Honors. — Military  Roads. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Liddell,  Ch.  27,  "Final  Reduction  and  Settlement  of  Italy"  (18).1 

Pelhara,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  2,  "The  Conquest  of  Italy"  (18). 

How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  13,  "Subjugation  of  Latium  and  Campania"; 
Ch.  16,  "War  with  Tarentum  and  Pyrrhus"  (18). 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  16,  "Summary  of  Roman  Institu- 
tions" (18). 

Ihne,  History,  Third  Book,  Ch.  17,  "The  Conquest  of  Italy"  (18). 

Mommsen,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  7,  "Struggle  between  Pyrrhus  and 
Rome  and  Union  of  Italy"  (18). 

Taylor,  Ch.  6,  "Rome  and  Italy"  (22). 

Granrud,  pp.  98-101,  "Conquest  and  Organization  of  Central  and 
Southern  Italy"  (22). 

Seignobos,  Ch.  7,  "The  Roman  Army"  (18). 

Smith,  Dictionary,  "Colonia"  (the  Roman  colonial  system); 
"Vise"  (Roman  road-making) ;  "Exercitus"  (the  Roman 
army)  (19). 

Munro,  Source  Book,  Part  IV.,  "The  Constitution  of  the  Re- 
public" (25). 

Livy,  Bk.  IX.,  Chs.  1-6  (battle  of  Caudine  Pass)    (25). 

'The   figure   In   parenthesis   refers   to  the  number  of  the   topic  In   the 
Appendix,  where  a  iuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

THE  STRUGGLES  WITH  CARTHAGE;  THE  PUNIC  WARS 
I.    THE  FIRST  PUNIC  WAR  (264-241  B.  c.) 

Home  and  Carthage. — The  first  foreign  power  with  which 
Rome  came  in  contact,  outside  of  Italy,  was  Carthage.  This 
city  was  originally  a  colony  of  Tyre,  and  had  come  to  be  the 
capital  of  a  great  commercial  empire  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa.  Carthage  brought  into  the  western  Mediterranean  the 
ideas  and  civilization  which  the  Phoenicians  had  developed  in 
the  East.  Her  power 
was  based  upon  trade  and 
commercial  supremacy. 
She  had  brought  under 
her  control  the  trading 
colonies  of  northern 

Africa  and  many  of  the  CARTHAOJNIAN  COIN 

Greek    cities    of    Sicily. 

Rome  and  Carthage  were  thus  each  striving  to  get  control  of 
the  cities  of  western  Hellas;  and  they  soon  became  rivals  for 
the  possession  of  the  countries  bordering  upon  the  western 
Mediterranean  Sea. 

In  comparing  these  two  great  rivals  of  the  West,  we  might 
say  that  they  were  nearly  equal  in  strength  and  resources. 
Carthage  had  greater  wealth,  but  Rome  had  a  better  organiza- 
tion. Carthage  had  a  more  powerful  navy,  but  Rome  had  a 
more  efficient  army.  Carthage  had  more  brilliant  leaders, 
while  Rome  had  a  more  steadfast  body  of  citizens.  The  main 
strength  of  Carthage  rested  in  her  wealth  and  commercial  re- 

315 


TVT^T*  ^Co.  13. 


316 


STRUGGLES   WITU    CARTHAGE 


317 


sources,  while  that  of  Rome  <!>  | tended  upon  the  character  of 
her  people  and  her  well-organized  political  system.  The  great- 
ness of  the  Carthaginians  was  shown  in  their  successes,  while 
the  greatness  of  the  Romans  was  most  fully  revealed  in  the 
dark  hours  of  trial  and  disaster. 

Outbreak  of  the  War  in  Sicily  (264  B.  c.).— The  first  con- 
flict between  Rome  and  Carthage,  which  is  known  as  the  first 


0    10  20  30  40  50 


SICILY — THE  FIRST  PUNIC  WAR 

Punic1  war,  began  in  Sicily;  and  really  came  to  be  a  contest 
for  the  possession  of  that  island.  Sicily  was  at  this  time  di- 
vided between  three  powers.  (1)  Carthage  held  all  the  western 
part  of  the  island,  with  the  important  cities  of  Agrigentum 
on  the  south,  Panormus  on  the  north,  and  Lilybgeum  at  the 
extreme  point.  (2)  The  southeastern  part  of  the  island  was' 
under  the  control  of  the  king  of  Syracuse,  who  ruled  not  only 
this  city,  but  also  some  of  the  neighboring  towns.  (3)  The 
northeastern  corner  of  the  island  was  in  the  possession  of  a 
body  of  Campanian  soldiers  who,  after  serving  the  king  of 
Syracuse,  had  treacherously  seized  the  city  of  Messana. 

These  Campanian  mercenaries,  who  called  themselves  Mam'- 
ertines,  or  Sons  of  Mars,  murdered  the  inhabitants  and  ravaged 
the  surrounding  country.    The  king  of  Syracuse  attacked  them, 
JSo  called  because  the  Latin  word  for  Carthaginian  is  Punicus. 


318 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


laid  siege  to  their  city,  and  reduced-  them  to  such  an  extremity 
that  they  called  upon  Kome  for  help.  The  Roman  senate  hes- 
itated to  help  these  robbers  against  Syracuse,  which  was  a 
friendly  power.  But  when  the  question  was  left  to  the  assem- 
bly, the  people  decided  to  help  the  Mamertines,  because  they 
rightly  feared  that  Carthage  would  be  called  upon  if  they  re- 
fused. The  Roman  army  that  was  sent  to  Messana  found  a 
Carthaginian  force  already  on  the  ground;  but  it  defeated 
both  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Syracusans,  and  the  war 
quickly  developed  into  a  struggle  to  drive  the  Carthaginians 
out  of  Sicily.  Town  after  town  fell  before  the  Roman  army ; 
and  in  the  second  year  of  the  war,  the  important  city  of  Agri- 

gentum  was  captured,  after  a  siege 
of  seven  months  (262  B.  c.). 

The  New  Roman  Navy;  the  Vic 
tory  at  Mylse  (260  B.  c.).— When 
the  enemy's  fleet  appeared  off  the 
coasts  of  Sicily,  the  Romans  saw 
that  Carthage,  to  be  overcome,  must 
be  met  upon  the  sea  as  well  as  upon 
the  land.  Taking  as  a  model  a 
Carthaginian  vessel  which  had  been 
wrecked  on  the  Italian  shore,  they 
constructed,  it  is  said,  a  hundred 
vessels  like  it  in  sixty  days.  In  the 
meantime  their  soldiers  were  trained 
into  sailors  by  practicing  the  art  of 
rowing  upon  rude  benches  built  upon 
the  land  and  arranged  like  the  banks 
of  a  real  vessel.  The  Romans  knew 
that  their  soldiers  were  better  than 
the  Carthaginians  in  a  hand-to-hand 
encounter.  To  maintain  this  ad- 
vantage, they  provided  their  ships  with  drawbridges  which 
could  be  used  in  boarding  the  enemy's  vessels.  Thus  equipped 


COLUMN  OF  DUILIUS 


STRUGGLES    WITH    CARTHAGE  319 

with  a  fleet,  Home  ventured  upon  the  sea  as  a  rival  of  the  first 
naval  power  of  the  world.  The  new  navy  was  placed  under 
command  of  the  consul  Duil'ius,  who  gained  a  decisive  victory 
off  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily  near  Myla\  The  Romans  thus 
had  fought  and  won  their  first  great  battle  upon  the  sea. 
Duilius  was  given  a  magnificent  triumph,  and  to  commemorate 
the  victory  a  column  was  erected  in  the  Forum,  adorned  with 
the  beaks  of  the  captured  vessels  (Colum'na  Rostra  ta). 

Invasion  of  Africa  by  Regulus  (256  B.  c.). — Elated  by  this 
success,  the  Romans  felt  prepared  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa. 
With  a  still  larger  fleet,  they  defeated  the  Carthaginian  squad- 
ron which  attempted  to  bar  their  way  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Sicily,  off  the  promontory  of  Ec'nomus.  Two  legions,  under 
L.  Manlius  Vulso  and  Reg'ulus,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
east  of  Carthage,  and  laid  waste  the  country.  So  easily  was 
this  accomplished  that  the  Romans  decided  that  one  consul, 
with  his  army,  would  be  enough  to  finish 
the  work  in  Africa.  Vulso  was  therefore 
recalled,  and  Regulus  remained.  The  Car- 
thaginians attempted  in  vain  to  make 
peace.  They  then  placed  their  army  in 
the  hands  of  a  Spartan  soldier  named 
Xanthip'pus.  This  general  defeated  the 
Roman  legions  with  great  slaughter,  and  REGULUS  (Coin) 
made  Regulus  a  prisoner.  A  fleet  was  then 
sent  from  Italy  to  rescue  the  survivors,  but  this  fleet  on  its 
return  was  wrecked  in  a  storm.  Thus  ingloriously  closed  the 
war  in  Africa. 

Progress  of  the  War  in  Sicily  (255-241  B.  c.). — For  several 
years  after  this,  the  war  languished  in  Sicily.  The  long  series 
of  Roman  disasters  was  relieved  by  the  capture  of  Panormus 
on  the  northern  coast,  which  was  soon  followed  by  a  second' 
victory  over  the  Carthaginians,  at  the  same  place.  It  is  said 
that  the  Carthaginians,  after  this  second  defeat,  desired 
an  exchange  of  prisoners,  and  sent  Regulus  to  the  Roman  sen- 


320  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

ate  to  advocate  their  cause,  under  the  promise  that  he  would 
return  if  unsuccessful.  But  Regulus,  it  is  said,  persuaded  the 
senate  not  to  accept  the  offer  of  the  Carthaginians;  and  then, 
in  spite  of  the  tears  and  entreaties  of  his  friends,  went  back 
to  Carthage.  Whether  this  story  is  true  or  not,  it  illustrates 
the  honor  and  patriotism  of  the  true  Roman. 

After  the  Roman  victories  at  Panormus,  the  Carthaginians 
were  pushed  into  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  island.  The 
Romans  then  laid  siege  to  Lilybaeum,  the  stronghold  of  the 
Carthaginian  power.  Failing  to  capture  this  place,  the  Roman 
consul,  P.  Claudius,  determined  to  destroy  the  enemy's  fleet 
lying  near  Drep'anum;  but  he  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
over  ninety  ships.  The  superstitious  Romans  believed  that 
this  defeat  was  due  to  the  fact  that  Claudius  had  impiously 
disregarded  the  auguries;  when  the  sacred  chickens  had  re- 
fused to  eat,  he  had  in  a  fit  of  passion  thrown  them  into  the 
sea.  The  consul  was  recalled  by  the  senate,  and  a  dictator 
was  appointed  in  his  place.  After  the  loss  of  other  fleets  by 
storms,  and  after  fruitless  campaigns  against  the  great  Car- 
thaginian soldier,  Hamil'car  Barca,  the  Roman  cause  seemed 
a  failure. 

Victory  at  the  Agates  Islands  (241  B.  c.). — It  is  in  the 
midst  of  such  discouraging  times  as  these  that  we  are  able  to 
sco  the  strong  elements  of  the  Roman  character — patriotism, 
fortitude,  and  steadfast  perseverance.  With  a  loss  of  one-sixth 
of  their  population  and  a  vast  amount  of  treasure,  they  still 
persisted  in  the  attempt  to  conquer  Sicily.  Wealthy  citizens 
advanced  their  money  to  build  a  new  fleet.  In  this  way  two 
hundred  ships  were  built  and  placed  under  the  consul  C.  Luta- 
tius  Cat'ulus.  A  decisive  victory  was  gained  at  the  ^Ega'tes 
I >I Minis,  off  the  western  extremity  of  Sicily.  The  Carthagini- 
ans wore  unprepared  for  the  terrible  defeat  which  they  suf- 
feivd.  ;uid  were  obliged  to  sue  for  peace.  They  wen-  obliged  to 
Lrive  up  Si  -ilv:  release  all  the  Roman  prisoners  without  ran- 
som;  Mnd  I.MV  to  the  Unmans  :t.->oo  fjilrnts  (about  $ l.oon.ono). 


STRUGGLES   WITH    CARTHAGE  321 

within  ten  years.  Thus  ended  the  first  Punic  war,  which  had 
lasted  for  twenty- three  years.  During  this  time  Koine  had 
shown  her  ability  to  fight  upon  the  sea,  and  had  fairly  entered 
the  lists  as  one  of  the  great  powers  of  the  world.  But  this  first 
contest  with  Carthage,  severe  as  it  was,  was  merely  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  more  terrible  struggle  which  was  yet  to  come. 

II.    EVENTS  BETWEEN  THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  PUNIC  WARS 
(241-218  B.  c.) 

Sicily,  the  First  Roman  Province. — In  the  interval  between 
the  first  and  second  Punic  wars,  both  Eome  and  Carthage 
sought  to  strengthen  and  consolidate  their  power.  They  knew 
that  the  question  of  supremacy  was  not  yet  decided,  and  that 
sooner  or  later  another  contest  was  sure  to  come.  Home  found 
herself  in  possession  of  a  new  territory  outside  of  Italy,  which 
had  to  be  organized.  She  had  already  three  kinds  of  territory: 
(1)  the  Roman  domain  (ager  Romanus),  where  the  people 
were,  generally  speaking,  full  citizens;  (2)  the  Latin  colonies, 
in  which  the  people  had  a  part  of  the  rights  of  citizens; 
and  (3)  the  Italian  land,  in  which  the  people  were  not  citizens, 
but  were  half  independent,  having  their  own  governments,  but 
being  bound  to  Rome  as  allies  in  war.  In  Sicily  a  new  system 
was  introduced.  The  land  was  generally  confiscated,  and  the 
inhabitants  were  obliged  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute.  The  whole 
island — except  Syracuse,  which  remained  independent — was 
governed  by  a  pnetor  sent  from  Rome.  By  this  arrangement 
Sicily  became  a  "  province  " — which  is  another  name  for  a 
conquered  territory  outside  of  Italy,  under  the  control  of  a 
Roman  governor. 

Annexation  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  (239  B.  c.). — Besides 
Sicily,  there  were  in  the  Mediterranean  two  other  islands  which 
seemed  by  nature  to  belong  to  Italy.  These  were  Sardinia  and 
Corsica.  While  Carthage  was  engaged  in  Africa  in  suppress- 
ing a  revolt  of  its  own  mercenaries,  who  did  not  receive  their 

MOKBY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. —  19 


322  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

pay  after  the  late  war,  Rome  saw  a  favorable  opportunity  to 
get  possession  of  Sardinia.  Carthage  protested  against  such  an 
act;  and  Rome  replied  by  demanding  the  cession  of  the  island, 
and  also  the  payment  of  a  fine  of  1,200  talents  (about  $1,500,- 
000).  Carthage  was  obliged  to  submit  to  this  unjust  demand; 
but  she  determined  to  avenge  herself  in  the  future.  As  Sar- 
dinia came  to  her  so  easily,  Rome  proceeded  to  take  Corsica 
also,  and  the  two  islands  were  erected  into  a  second  Roman 
province.  Rome  thus  obtained  possession  of  the  three  great 
islands  of  the  western  Mediterranean. 

Suppression  of  the  Illyrian  Pirates  (229  B.  c.).— The  atten- 
tion of  Rome  was  soon  directed  to  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  An  appeal  came  from  the  cities  of  Greece 
— the  JEtolian  and  Achaean  leagues — for  protection  against 
the  pirates  of  the  Adriatic.  These  pirates  were  the  people 
of  Illyricum,  who  made  their  living  by  plundering  the  ships 
and  ravaging  the  coasts  of  their  Greek  neighbors.  With  a 
fleet  of  two  hundred  ships,  Rome  cleared  the  Adriatic  Sea 
of  the  pirates.  She  then  took  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast 
under  her  protection ;  Rome  thus  obtained  a  foothold  upon  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  which  brought  her  into  friendly 
relations  with  Greece,  and  afterward  into  hostile  relations  with 
Macedonia. 

Conquest  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  (225-222  B.  c.). — As  Rome 
began  to  be  drawn  into  foreign  wars,  she  became  aware  that 
her  position  at  home  could  not  be  secure  so  long  as  the  northern 
part  of  Italy  remained  unconquered.  The  Alps  formed  the 
natural  boundary  of  Italy;  and  to  this  boundary  she  felt 
obliged  to  extend  her  power.  She  planted  colonies  upon  the 
Gallic  frontier,  and  in  these  towns  made  a  large  assignment 
of  lands  to  her  own  citizens.  The  Gauls  resented  this  as  an 
encroachment  upon  their  territory;  they  appealed  to  arms,  in- 
vaded Etruria,  and  threatened  Rome.  The  invaders  were  de- 
feated and  driven  back,  and  the  war  was  continued  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Po  until  the  whole  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  was  finally 


STKI  <;<;u-:s  wrni  CARTHAGE 


subdued.  The  conquered  territory  was  secured  by  new  colonies, 
and  Koine  was  practically  suprcnu;  to  the  Alps.  Her  people 
were  made  more  devoted  to  her  by  the  share  which  they  re- 
ceived in  the  new  land.  Her  dominions  were  now  so  well 
organized,  and  her  authority  so  secure,  that  she  felt  prepared 
for  another  contest  with  Carthage. 


III.     THE  SECOND  PUNK;  WAR  (218-201  B.  c.) 

Extension  of  the  Carthaginian  Power  in  Spain. — The  sec- 
ond Punic  war  was  to  decide  the  fate  of  Koine,  and  perhaps 
of  Europe.  Its  real  cause  was  the  growing  rivalry  between  the 
two  great  powers  that  were  now  struggling  for  supremacy  in 
the  western  Mediterranean.  But  it  was  directly  brought  about 
by  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Carthaginian  dominion  in  Spain. 
While  Kome  was  adding  to  her  strength  by  the  conquest  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul  and  the  reduction  of  the  islands  in  the  sea, 
Carthage  was  building  up  a  great  empire  in  the  Spanish  pen- 
insula. Here  she  expected  to  raise  new 
armies,  with  which  to  invade  Italy. 
This  was  the  policy  of  Hamilcar  Barca, 
her  greatest  citizen  and  soldier.  The 
work  was  begun  by  Hamilcar  himself, 
and  then  continued  by  his  son-in-law, 
Has'drubal,  who  founded  the  city  of 
New  Carthage  as  the  capital  of  the  new 
province.  Carthage  continued  the  work 
of  conquering  the  southern  part  of 
Spain,  without  infringing  upon  the 
rights  of  Kome,  until  Hasdrubal  died. 
Then  Hannibal,  the  young  son  of  the 
great  Hamilear,  and  the  idol  of  the 
army,  was  chosen  as  commander.  This  young  Carthaginian, 
who  had  in  his  boyhood  sworn  an  eternal  hostility  to  Kome, 
now  felt  that  his  mission  was  come.  He  marched  from  New 


HANNIBAL 


324 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


Carthage  and  proceeded  to  attack  Saguntum,  the  ally  of  Rome; 
and  after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  captured  it.  This  led  to  a 
declaration  of  war  by  Rome. 

Hannibal's  Invasion  of  Italy;  his  Early  Victories. — Even 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war  Hannibal  showed  his  great  genius 


SPAIN— HANNIBAL'S  ROUTE 

as  a  soldier.  The  Romans  formed  an  excellent  plan  to  send 
two  armies  into  the  enemy's  country — one  into  Africa  under 
Sempronius,  and  the  other  into  Spain  under  P.  Cornelius 
Scipio  (sipio).  But  Hannibal,,  with  the  instinct  of  a  true 
soldier,  saw  that  Carthage  would  be  safe  if  Italy  were  invaded 
Mini  Koine  threatened.  Leaving  his  brother  Hasdrubal  to  pro- 
tect Spain,  he  crossed  the  Pyrenees  with  fifty  thousand  infan- 
try, nine  thousand  cavalry,  and  a  number  of  elephants.  With- 
out delay  he  pushed  on  to  the  river  Rhone;  outflanked  the 
barbarians  who  were  trying  to  oppose  his  passage;  and  crossed 
the  river  above,  just  as  the  Roman  army  (which  had  expected 
to  meet  him  in  Spain)  had  reached  Massilia  (Marseilles). 


STRUGGLES   WITH   CARTHAGE 


325 


When  the  Roman  commander,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  found  that 
he  had  been  outgeneraled  by  Hannibal,  he  sent  his  brother 
Cn.  Scipio  on  to  Spain  with  the  main  army,  and  returned 
himself  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  expecting  to  destroy  the  Cartha- 


SECOND  PUNIC 
WAR  —  HAN- 
NIBAL'S  ROUTE 

ginian  if  he  should 
venture  to  come  into 
Italy.     Hannibal   in   the 
meantime    pressed    on.      In 
spite    of    innumerable    difficul- 
ties   and    dangers    he    crossed    the 
Alps  and  descended  into  the  valley  of 
thePo. 

He  first  defeated  the  Roman  cavalry  on  the  north  of  the  Po, 
near  the  little  stream  Tici'nus.  He  then  moved  south  of  the 
Po,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Roman  army  commanded  by  Scipio  and  Sempronius — the  lat- 
ter having  been  recalled  from  the  intended  expedition  into 
Africa.  Hannibal  then  pushed  through  the  marshes  of  Etru- 
ria,  and  placed  himself  between  a  new  Roman  army  and  the 


326  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Roman  capital;  and  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Trasume'nus  he 
entrapped  and  practically  annihilated  the  whole  Roman  army. 

Battle  of  Cannae  (216  B.  c.). — The- frightful  disaster  at  Lake 
Trasumenus  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  dictator,  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus,  who  on  account  of  his  cautious  policy  was  called 
"  Cuncta'tor,"  or  the  Delayer.  New  armies  were  raised  and 
the  city  was  put  into  a  state  of  defense.  The  Romans  soon 
grew  tired  of  the  cautious  and  indecisive  movements  of  Fa- 
bius; and  two  new  consuls  were  elected  to  take  his  place, 
who  were  expected  to  pursue  a  more  vigorous  policy.  These 
were  Terentius  Varro  and  ^Emilius  Paullus.  Hannibal's  army 
was  now  in  Apulia,  near  the  little  town  of  Cannae  on  the  Au'- 
fidus  River.  To  this  place  the  consuls  led  their  new  forces,  con- 
sisting of  eighty  thousand  infantry  and  six  thousand  cavalry — 
the  largest  army  that  the  Romans  had,  up  to  that  time,  ever 
gathered  on  a  single  battlefield.  Hannibal's  army  consisted  of 
forty  thousand  infantry  and  ten  thousand  cavalry.  As  this  was 
Hannibal's  greatest  battle,  we  may  learn  something  of  his  won- 
derful skill  by  looking  at  its  plan. 

The  Romans  drew  up  their  heavy  infantry  in  solid  columns, 
facing  to  the  south,  to  attack  the  center  of  Hannibal's  line. 
In  front  of  the  heavy-armed  troops  were  the  light-armed  sol- 
diers, to  act  as  skirmishers.  On  the  Roman  right,  near  the 
river,  were  two  thousand  of  the  Roman  cavalry,  and  on  the  left 
wing  were  four  thousand  cavalry  of  the  allies.  With  their 
army  thus  arranged,  the  Romans  hoped  to  defeat  Hannibal. 
But  Hannibal  laid  his  plan  not  simply  to  defeat  the  Roman 
army,  but  to  draw  it  into  such  a  position  that  it  could  be  en- 
tirely destro}red.  He  therefore  placed  his  weakest  troops,  the 
Spanish  and  Gallic  infantry,  in  the  center  opposite  the  heavy 
infantry  of  the  Romans,  and  pushed  them  forward  in  the  form 
of  a  crescent,  with  the  expectation  that  they  would  be  driven 
back  and  pursued  by  the  Romans.  On  either  Hank  he  placed 
his  heavy  infantry  of  African  troops,  his  b<st  and  most  trusted 
soldiers,  drawn  back  in  long,  solid  columns,  so  that  they  could 


STRUGGLES  WITH  CARTHAGE 


327 


fall  upon  the  Romans  when  the  center  had  been  driven  in. 
On  his  left  wing,  next  to  the  river,  were  placed  four  thousand 
Spanish  and  Gallic  cavalry,  and  on  the  right  wing  his  superb 
body  of  six  thousand  Nu- 
midian  cavalry,  which 
was  to  swing  around  and 
attack  the  Roman  army  in 
the  rear,  when  it  had  be- 
come engaged  with  the 
African  troops  upon  the 
right  and  left. 

The  description  of  this 
plan  is  almost  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  battle  itself. 
When  the  Romans  had 
pressed  back  the  weak 


?n 


H 


'a- 


center  of  Hannibal's  line,  BATTLE  OF 

they     found     themselves 

ingulfed  in  the  midst  of  the  Carthaginian  forces.  Attacked  on 
all  sides,  the  Roman  army  became  a  confused  mass  of  strug- 
gling men,  and  the  battle  became  a  butchery.  The  army  was 
annihilated ;  seventy  thousand  Roman  soldiers  are  said  to  have 
been  slain,  among  whom  were  eighty  senators  and  the  consul 
^E-milius.  The  small  remnant  of  survivors  fled  to  the  neigh- 
boring towns,  and  Varro,  with  seventy  horsemen,  took  refuge 
in  Venusia.  This  was  the  most  terrible  day  that  Rome  had 
seen  since  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Gauls,  nearly  two 
centuries  before.  Every  house  in  Rome  was  in  mourning. 

Dismay  and  Fortitude  of  the  Romans. — During  the  period 
which  followed  the  battle  of  Cannae,  the  Roman  character  was 
put  to  its  severest  test.  The  people  feared  the  worst.  Every- 
thing seemed  turning  against  them.  The  Apulians,  the 
Lucanians,  the  Samnites,  and  the  Bruttians  revolted.  Capua, 
the  most  important  city  in  Italy,  after  Rome,  opened  her  gates 
to  Hannibal;  and  Tarentum,  which  held  a  Roman  garrison, 


328  THE    EOMAN    WORLD 

was  betrayed  into  his  hands.  Syracuse  transferred  her  alle- 
giance from  Rome  to  Carthage,  and  many  other  cities  in  Sicily 
threatened  to  revolt.  Philip  V.,  the  king  of  Macedonia,  also 
made  an  alliance  with  Hannibal  (see  p.  243),  and  threatened  to 
invade  Italy  to  assist  him.  In  the  face  of  all  these  discourage- 
ments, the  Roman  people,  supported  by  the  faithful  Latin 
towns  and  colonies,  remained  firm;  and  with  fixed  resolution 
determined  to  prosecute  the  war  with  greater  vigor  than  ever 
before. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  tide  began  to  turn,  and  the 
energetic  efforts  of  the  Romans  began  to  be  rewarded.  Syra- 
cuse was  recaptured  (212  B.  c.)  by  the  praetor  Marcellus,  at 
that  time  the  governor  of  the  province  of  Sicily.  Capua  also 
was  retaken  (211  B.  c.),  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Hannibal  to 
draw  away  the  Roman  army  from  besieging  that  city,  by 
marching  to  the  gates  of  Rome.  Moreover,  Tarentum  was  re- 
captured (209  B.  c.)  by  Fabius  Cunctator,  his  last  service  in 
the  field.  Besides,  the  Romans,  by  forming  an  alliance  with 
the  cities  of  Greece,  were  able  to  prevent  the  Macedonian  king 
from  invading  Italy. 

Battle  of  the  Metaurus  (207  B.  c.).— While  Hannibal  had 
been  engaged  in  Italy,  Hasdrubal  had  been  kept  in  Spain  by 
the  vigorous  campaign  which  the  Romans  had  conducted  in 
that  peninsula  under  the  two  Scipios.  Upon  the  death  of 
these  generals,  the  young  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  was  sent 
to  Spain  and  earned  a  great  name  by  his  victories.  But  Has- 
dnibal  was  determined  to  go  to  the  rescue  of  his1  brother  in 
Italy.  He  followed  Hannibal's  path  over  the  Alps  into  the 
valley  of  the  Po.  Hannibal  had  moved  into  Apulia,  where  he 
was  awaiting  news  from  Hasdrubal.  There  were  now  two 
enemies  in  Italy,  instead  of  one.  One  Roman  army  under 
Claudius  \<TO  was  therefore  sent  to  oppose  Hannibal  in 
Apulia:  and  another  army  under  Livius  Salina'tor  was  aen1 
to  meet  Hasdrubal,  who  had  just  crossed  the  river  Metau'rus, 
in  Umbria. 


STKHJULKS    WITH    CARTHAGE 


It  was  necessarv  that  llasdrubal  should  be  crushed  before 
Hannibal  was  informed  of  his  arrival  in  Italy.  The  consul 
Claudius  Nero  therefore  left  his  main  army  in  Apulia,  and 
with  eight  thousand  picked  soldiers  hurried  to  the  aid  of  his 
colleague  in  Umbria.  The  battle  which  took  place  at  the 
Metaurus  was  decisive,  and  really  determined  the  issue  of 
tiie  second  Punic  war.  The  army  of  Hasdrubal  was  entirely 
destroyed,  and  he  himself  was  slain.  The  first  news  which 
Hannibal  received  of  this  disaster  was  from  the  lifeless  lips  of 
his  own  brother,  whose  head  was  thrown  by  the  Romans  into 
the  Carthaginian  camp.  Hannibal  saw  that  the  death  of  his 
brother  was  the  doom  of  Carthage;  and  he  sadly  exclaimed, 
"  0  Carthage,  I  see  thy  fate  !  "  Hannibal  retired  into  Brut- 

tium;  and  the  Roman 
consuls  received  the  first 
triumph  that  had  been 
given  since  the  beginning 
of  this  disastrous  war. 

Publius  Scipio  Afri- 
canus. — Of  all  the  men 
produced  by  Rome  dur- 
ing the  Punic  wars,  Pub- 
lius Cornelius  Scipio  (aft- 
erward called  Africa'nus) 
came  the  nearest  to  be- 
ing a  military  genius. 
From  boyhood  he  had, 
like  Hannibal,  served  in 
the  army.  At  the  death 
of  his  father  and  un- 
cle, he  had  been  in- 
trusted with  the  conduct  of  the  war  in  Spain.  With  great 
ability  he  had  defeated  the  armies  which  opposed  him,  and 
had  regained  the  entire  peninsula,  after  it  had  been  almost 
With  his  conquest  of  New  Carthage  and  Gades  (see  map, 


PUBLIUS  SCIPTO  AFRICANUS 


SI  V  143    TVLAJJ?    No.  IUL. 


STRUGGLES    WITH    CARTHAGE  331 

p.  324),  Spain  was  brought  under  the  Roman  power.  On  his 
return  to  Rome,  Scipio  was  unanimously  elected  to  the  con- 
sulship. He  then  proposed  his  scheme  for  closing  the  war. 
This  plan  was  to  keep  Hannibal  shut  up  in  the  Bruttian  penin- 
sula, and  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa.  This  plan  received  the 
support  of  the  people;  and  Scipio  proceeded  to  carry  it  into 
execution.  When  her  armies  in  Africa  were  defeated,  Car- 
thage felt  compelled  to  recall  Hannibal  from  Italy. 

Battle  of  Zama,  and  End  of  the  War  (201  B.  c.).— The  final 
battle  of  the  war  was  fought  (202  B.  c.)  near  Zama  (see  map, 
p.  324).  Irvthis  battle  Hannibal  was  defeated,  and  the  Car- 
thaginian army  was  annihilated.  It  is  said  that  twenty  thou- 
sand men  were  slain,  and  as  many  more  taken  prisoners.  The 
great  war  was  now  ended,  and  Scipio  imposed  the  terms  of 
peace  (201  B.  c.).  These  terms  were  as  follows:  (1)  Carthage 
was  to  give  up  the  whole  of  Spain  and  all  the  islands  between 
Africa  and  Italy;  (2)  Carthage  was  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
of  200  talents  (about  $250,000)  for  fifty  years ;  (3)  Carthage 
agreed  not  to  wage  any  war  without  the  consent  of  Rome. 

Rome  was  thus  recognized  as  the  mistress  of  the  western 
Mediterranean.  Carthage,  although  not  reduced  to  a  prov- 
ince, became  a  dependent  state.  Syracuse  was  added  to  the 
province  of  Sicily,  and  the  territory  of  Spain  was  divided  into 
two  provinces,  Hither  and  Farther  Spain,  each  under  a  Roman 
governor.  Rome  had,  moreover,  been  brought  into  hostile  re- 
lations with  Macedonia,  which  paved  the  way  for  her  con- 
quests in  the  East. 

SYNOPSIS   FOR    REVIEW 

T.  THE  FIRST  PITNIC  WAR. — Rome  and  Carthage. — Outbreak  of 
the  War  in  Sicily. — The  New  Roman  Navy;  Victory  at  Mylse. — 
Invasion  of  Africa  by  Reg-ulns. — Progress  of  the  War  in  Sicily. — 
Victory  at  the  ^Egates  Islands. 

II.  EVENTS  BETWEEN  -THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  PUNIC  WARS. — 
Sicily,  the  First  Roman  Province. — Annexation  of  Sardinia  and 
Corsica. — Suppression  of  the  Illyrian  Pirates. — Conquest  of  Cis- 
alpine Gaul. 


332  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

III.  THE  SECOND  PUNIC  WAR.— Extension  of  the  Carthaginian 
Power  in  Spain. — Hannibal's  Invasion  of  Italy;  his  Early  Vic- 
tories.— Battle  of  Cannae. — Dismay  and  Fortitude  of  the  Ro- 
mans.— Battle  of  the  Metaurus. — Publius  Scipio  Africanus. — Bat- 
tle of  Zama,  and  End  of  the  War. 

REFERENCES   FOR    READING 

Pelham,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  1,  "Rome  and  Carthage"  (18).1 

Schuckburgh,  Ch.  17,  "Rome  and  Carthage"   (18). 

Liddell,  Ch.  28,  "Events  Leading  to  the  First  Punic  War"  (18). 

How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  20,  "Hamilcar  and  Hannibal";  Index,  "Scipio, 
P.  Cornelius  Africanus"  (18). 

Mommsen,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  1,  "Carthage"  (18). 

Munro,  Source  Book,  Part  IV.,  "The  Punic  Wars"  (25). 

Plutarch,  "Marcellus,"  "Fabius"   (26). 

Polybius,  Bk.  L,  Chs.-22,  23  (the  victory  of  Duilius);  Chs.  49-51 
(defeat  at  Drepana);  Ch.  59  (the  fleet  built  by  private  sub- 
scription); Ch.  62  (treaty  at  end  of  the  first  Punic  war);  Ch. 
88  (annexation  of  Sardinia);  Bk.  VI.,  Chs.  19-42  (the  Ro- 
man army);  Bk.  VIII.,  Chs.  5-9,  37  (siege  of  Syracuse  by 
Marcellus)  (25). 

Livy,  Bk.  XXL,  Chs.  6-15  (siege  of  Saguntum);  Chs.  32-38  (Han- 
nibal's passage  of  the  Alps);  Bk.  XXIL,  Chs.  4-7  (battle  of 
Lake  Trasumenus);  Chs.  44-52  (battle  of  Canna?);  Bk.  XXX., 
Ch.  43  (treaty  at  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  war)  (25). 


CHAPTER    XXII 

THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS 
I.     THE  WARS  WITH  MACEDONIA  AND  SYRIA 

Relation  of  Rome  to  the  East. — For  some  years  after  the 
close  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  attention  of  Homo  was 
directed  almost  entirely  toward  the  East.  We  remember  that 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  his  empire  had  been 
split  up  into  various  kingdoms  (p.  239).  The  most  important 
of  these  kingdoms  were  Egypt  in  Africa,  Syria  in  Asia,  and 
Macedonia  in  Europe.  Besides  these  three  uriv;ii  kingdoms 

'The  figure  In  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  In  th« 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS   333 

there  were  also  several  smaller  states,  among  thorn  Pergamum 
and  Rhodes  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor;  and  also  the  ^Etolian 
and  Achaean  leagues  in  Greece.  The  relations  of  Home  to  these 
various  states  were  quite  different.  With  Egypt  she  had 
formed  a  friendly  alliance  and  was  receiving  from  that  coun- 
try her  most  important  supplies  of  grain.  With  Syria  Eome 
was  not  now  ready  to  come  into  open  conflict;  although  that 
state  was  on  friendly  terms  with  her  greatest  enemy,  Hannibal, 
and  was  threatening  the  possessions  of  her  most  important 
ally,  Egypt.  But  against  Macedonia  the  Roman  people  cher- 
ished the  most  bitter  hatred,  on  account  of  the  aid  which  her 
king,  Philip  V.,  extended  to  Carthage  during  the  second  Punic 
war.  Toward  the  smaller  states  above  mentioned  Rome  en- 
tertained a  friendly  feeling,  and  assumed  the  position  of  their 
protector.  With  no  evident  desire  at  first  to  conquer  these 
various  countries,  Rome  was  constantly  called  upon  to  inter- 
fere in  their  disputes ;  until  she  became  the  arbiter  and  finally 
the  mistress  of  the  East. 

The  First  Macedonian  War  (215-206  B.  c.). — It  was  the  in- 
discreet alliance  of  Philip  V.  of  Macedonia  with  Hannibal,  dur- 
ing the  second  Punic  war,  which  we  have  already  noticed,  that 
brought  about  the  first  conflict  between  Rome  and  Macedonia. 
But  Rome  was  then  so  fully  occupied  with  her  struggle  with 
Carthage  that  all  she  desired  to  do  was  simply  to  prevent 
Philip  from  making  his  threatened  invasion  of  Italy.  Rome 
therefore  sent  a  small  force  across  the  Adriatic,  made  friends 
with  the  ^Etolians,  and  kept  Philip  occupied  at  home.  The 
Macedonian  king  was  thus  prevented  from  sending  any  force 
into  Italy.  The  ^Etolians,  not  satisfied  with  the  support  given 
to  them  by  Rome,  soon  made  peace  with  Philip ;  and  the  Ro- 
mans themselves,  who  were  about  to  invade  Africa,  were  also 
willing  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace  with  him.  Thus  closed 
what  is  generally  called  the  first  Macedonian  war,  which  was 
really  nothing  more  than  a  diversion  to  prevent  Philip  from 
giving  aid  to  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Cannae. 


334 


THE    ROMAN   WORLD 


The  Second  Macedonian  War  (200-197  B.  c.).— When  the 
second  Punic  war  was  fairly  ended,  Rome  felt  free  to  deal  with 
Philip  of  Macedonia,  and  to  take  a  firm  hand  in  settling  the  af- 
fairs of  the  East.  Philip  had  annoyed  her,  not  only  by  making 
an  alliance  with  Hannibal,  but  afterward  by  sending  a  force  to 
assist  him  at  the  battle  of  Zama.  And  now  the  ambitious 


20 w     CD     90    100 


SEAT  OF  THE  MACEDONIAN  .AND  SYRIAN  WARS 

schemes  of  Philip  were  not  at  all  to  her  liking.  For  instance, 
he  made  an  agreement  with  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria  to  cut  up 
the  possessions  of  Egypt,  a  country  which  was  friendly  to 
Rome.  He  was  also  overrunning  the  coasts  of  the  ^Egean  Sea, 
and  was  threatening  Pergamum  and  Rhodes,  as  well  as  the 
cities  of  Greece.  When  appeal  came  to  Rome  for  protection, 
she  espoused  the  cause  of  the  small  states,  and  declared  war 
nirninst  Macedonia.  The  great  hero  of  this  war  was  T. 
Quinctius  Flamini'nus;  and  the  decisive  battle  was  fought 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS       335 


(197  B.  c.)  near  a  hill  in  Thessaly  called  Cynosceph'alae  (Dog's 
Heads).  Here  Philip  was  completely  defeated,  and  his  army 
was  destroyed.  Macedonia  was  thus  humbled,  and  there  was 
now  no  power  in  Europe  which  could  successfully  dispute  the 
supremacy  of  Rome. 

The  Liberation  of  Greece  (196  B.  c.). — To  complete  her 
work  in  eastern  Europe,  and  to  justify  her  position  as  de- 
fender of  the  Greek  cities,  Rome 
withdrew  her  garrisons  and  an- 
nounced the  independence  of 
Greece.  This  was  proclaimed  by 
Flamininus  at  the  Isthmian 
games,  amid  wild  enthusiasm  and 
unbounded  expressions  of  grati- 
tude. Rome  was  hailed  as  "  the 
nation  which,  at  its  own  expense, 
with  its  own  labor,  and  at  its 
own  risk,  waged  war  for  the  lib- 
erty of  others,  and  which  had 
crossed  the  sea  that  justice,  right, 
and  law  should  everywhere  have 
xxxiii,  33). 

War  with  Antiochus  of  Syria  (192-189  B.  c.).— The  cities 
of  Greece  generally  seemed  contented  with  their  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  the  Romans — -except  the  members  of  the  ^Etolian 
League.  This  restless  people  desired  to  be  free  from  the  pro- 
tection of  Rome,  and  appealed  for  aid  to  the  king  of  Syria, 
Antiochus  III.  In  response  to  this  appeal  the  Syrian  king 
landed  in  Greece  with  a  small  army  of  10,000.  He  was  speed- 
ily defeated  and  driven  into  Asia  Minor.  The  Roman  armies 
followed  him,  and  fought  their  first  battle  upon  Asiatic  soil  at 
Magnesia  (190  B.  c.) — which  proved  a  decisive  victory.  The 
Romans  fought  under  the  command  of  Lucius  Scipio,  who  was 
accompanied  and  aided  by  his  famous  brother  Africanus. 
Much  of  the  territory  conquered  from  Antiochus  was  turned 


ROMAN  HERALD 


sovereign   sway"    (Livy, 


336  THE    ROMAN    WOKLD 

over  to  Pergamum  and  Rhodes.  The  free  states  of  Asia  Minor 
were  left  independent  under  the  protection  of  Rome.  The 
Romans  then  subdued  the  revolted  ^to- 
lians  and  pacified  the  cities  of  Greece. 

One  of  the  conditions  of  the  peace  with 
Antiochus  was  the  surrender  of  Hannibal, 
who  had  actively  aided  the  king  in  the  late 
war.  But  Hannibal  fled  from  Syria;  and 
being  pursued  by  the  Romans,  this  great 
ANTIOCHUS  III.  soldier  and  enemy  of  Rome  took  his  own 

(Coin)  .  J 

life  by  poison. 

The  Third  Macedonian  War  (171-168  B.  c.).— Macedonia 
had  been  an  ally  of  Rome  during  the  late  war  with  Antiochus; 
and  at  its  close  Philip  was  disappointed  that  he  had  not  re- 
ceived some  share  of  the  conquered  lands.  But  it  was  Rome's 
policy  to  strengthen  the  weak,  and  to  weaken  the  strong.  At 
the  death  of  Philip  V.  his  son  Perseus  came  to  the  throne  of 
Macedonia.  This  young  king  determined  to  throw  off  the 
dictation  of  Rome,  to  reestablish  the  independence  of  his  own 
kingdom,  and  to  champion  the  rights  of  the  Greek  cities 
against  the  interference  of  Rome.  The  ambitious  schemes  of 
Perseus  led  to  another  war  between  Rome  and  Macedonia. 
After  three  unsuccessful  campaigns,  the  Roman  armies  under 
^Emilius  Paullus  (son  of  the  consul  slain  at  Cannae)  gained 
a  decisive  victory  near  Pydna  (168  B.  c.).  Here  the  Mace- 
donian phalanx  fought  its  last  great  battle;  and  tjie  Roman 
legions  gave  a  new  evidence  of  their  superior  strengfc.  Mace- 
donia was  now  broken  up  into  four  separate  districts,  which 
were  to  be  governed  by  their  own  officers,  but  which  were  for- 
bidden to  have  any  relations  with  one  another. 

All  the  chief  men  of  Greece  who  had  given  any  aid  tcxthe 
Macedonian  king  were  transport^  to  Italy,  where  they  cotiM 
not  stir  up  a  revolt  in  their  native  country.  Among  the 
Achaean  captives  was  the  historian  Polyb'ius,  who  £ow  gath- 
ered the  materials  of  his  great  work  on  Roman  history. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS       337 
II.    REDUCTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONQUESTS 

Change  of  the  Roman  Policy. — We  sometimes  think  that 
Rome  started  out  upon  her  great  career  of  conquest  with  a 
definite  purpose  to  subdue  the  world,  and  with  clear  ideas  as 
to  how  it  should  be  governed.  But  nothing  could  be  farther 
from  the  truth.  She  had  been  drawn  on  from  one  war  to  an- 
other, often  against  her  own  will.  When  she  first  crossed  the 
narrow  strait  into  Sicily  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  Punic 
war,  she  little  thought  that  in  a  hundred  years  her  armies 
would  be  fighting  in  Asia;  and  when  in  earlier  times  she  was 
compelled  to  find  some  way  of  keeping  peace  and  order  in 
Latium,  she  could  not  have  known  that  she  would,  sooner  or 
later,  be  compelled  to  devise  a  way  to  preserve  the  peace  and 
order  of  the  world.  But  Rome  was  ever  growing  and  ever 
learning.  She  learned  how  to  conquer  before  she  learned  how 
to  govern.  It  was  only  after  the  third  Macedonian  war  that 
Rome  became  convinced  that  her  method  of  governing  the 
conquered  lands  was  not  strong  enough  to  preserve  peace  and 
maintain  her  own  authority.  She  had  heretofore  left  the  con- 
quered states  to  a  certain  extent  free  and  independent.  But 
now,  either  excited  by  jealousy  or  irritated  by  the  intrigues  and 
disturbances  of  the  conquered  peoples,  she  was  determined  to 
reduce  them  to  a  more  complete  state  of  submission. 

Reduction  of  Macedonia  and  Illyricum. — She  was  espe- 
cially convinced  of  the  need  of  a  new  policy  by  the  continued 
troubles  in  Macedonia.  The  experiment  which  she  had  tried, 
of  cutting  up  the  kingdom  into  four  separate  states,  had  not 
been  entirely  successful.  To  add  to  the  disturbances,  there  ap- 
peared a  man  who  called  himself  Philip,  and  who  pretended  to 
be  the  son  of  Perseus.  He  incited  the  people  to  revolt,  and 
even  defeated  the  Romans  in  a  battle;  but  he  was  himself  soon 
defeated  and  made  a  prisoner.  The  time  had  now  come  for 
Rome  to  adopt  her  new  policy  in  respect  to  Macedonia.  The 
previous  divisions  of  the  kingdom  (p.  336)  were  abolished, 


338 


THE   ROMAN   WORLD 


and  each  city  or  community  was  made  directly  responsible  to 
a  governor  sent  from  Rome.  By  this  new  arrangement,  Mace- 
donia became  a  Roman  province  (146  B.  c.).^. 

About  this  time — perhaps  a  little  earlier — the  king  of  Illyri- 
cum  was  accused  of  favoring  the  cause  of  Macedonia,  and  of 


RUINS  AT  CORINTH 

having  formed  a  secret  alliance  with  Perseus.  The  country 
was  hence  invaded  by  a  Roman  army;  its  king  was  deposed 
and  a  Roman  governor  appointed  in  his  place.  Thus  Macedo- 
nia and  Illyricum  became  the  first  two  Roman  provinces  east 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

Destruction  of  Corinth  and  Reduction  of  Greece. — The 
Achaean  League,  the  capital  city  of  which  was  Corinth,  was 
now  the  only  important  independent  state  in  tho  I  Mimic 
peninsula.  This  league  was  trying  to  exercise  authority  over 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS       339 

all  the  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus.  But  Sparta  resisted,  and 
appealed  to  Rome  for  protection.  The  commissioners  sent  by 
Home  to  settle  this  difficulty  were  grossly  insulted  by  the 
Achaean  assembly  sitting  at  Corinth.  The  Homans  were  now 
determined  to  break  up  the  league.  Corinth  was  ruthlessly 
destroyed  (146  B.  c.),  and  its  art  treasures  were  sent  to  Rome. 
The  commander  of  the  Roman  army  at  this  time  was  Mum- 
mius,  a  boorish  man.  The  story  is  told  that  Mumrnius  warned 
the  sailors  that  if  they  destroyed  or  injured  any  of  the  Greek 
statues  or  pictures  on  their  voyage  "  they  must  replace  them 
with  others  of  equal  value."  The  destruction  of  Corinth  was 
a  barharous  act  of  war,  such  as  no  civilized  nation  has  ever 
approved.  Rome  now  applied  to  Greece  her  policy  of  isola- 
tion, and  forbade  all  confederations  among  the  cities.  A  few 
cities — Athens,  Sparta,  and  Sicyon — were  allowed  to  retain 
their  freedom,  while  the  rest  of  the  cities  were  placed  under 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  governor  of  Macedonia.  In  later 
times  Greece  became  a  separate  province,  called  Acha'ia. 
The  Third  Punic  War  and  Reduction  of  Africa. — Another 

example  ofj:hft  severe  policy  whinh  T?nmp  wns  now  adopting 
is  seen  in  the  destruction  of  Carthage.  This  city  had  been 
growing  in  prosperity  since  the  second  Punic  war,  and  seemed 
to  be  exciting  the  envy,  if  not  the  fear,  of  Rome.  The  bit- 
ter jealousy  of  Rome  was  expressed  by  Cato  the  Censor,  who 
ended  every  speech  in  the  senate  with  the  words — "  Carthage 
must  be  destroyed."  Rome  waited  for  a  pretext  to  destroy  the 
prosperity  of  her  old  and  hated  rival.  This  they  soon  found  in 
the  fact  that  Carthage  had  taken  up  arms  against  the  neigh- 
boring kingdom  of  Numidia,  which  was  an  ally  of  Rome. 
Rome  interfered  and  demanded  that  Carthage  must,  to  insure 
peace,  give  up  three  hundred  of  her  youths  as  hostages;  then, 
that  she  must  give  up  her  arms  and  munitions  of  war;  finally, 
that  the  city  of  Carthage  itself  must  be  abandoned.  With  this 
last  unjust  demand  the  Carthaginians  refused  to  comply. 
Whereupon  Rome  invaded  Africa  with  an  army  under  Scipio 

MOREY'S   ANCIENT  HIST. —  20 


340 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


^Emilia'nus — the  nephew  of  the  great  Africanus  who  had  pre- 
viously defeated  the  Carthaginians  at  Zama.  History  records 
no  more  heroic  defense  than  that  offered  by  the  Carthaginians 
to  the  Roman  armies.  At  last  Carthage  fell,  and  by  command 
of  the  senate  the  city  was  consigned  to  the  flames  and  its  sur- 
viving inhabitants  were  carried  away  as  captives.  The  de- 
struction of  Carthage  took  place  in  the  same  year  (146  B.  c.) 
in  which  Corinth  was  destroyed.  The  terrible  punishment  in- 


SITE  OF  CARTHAGE 

flicted  upon  these  two  cities  in  Greece  and  Africa  was  an  evi- 
dence of  Rome's  grim  policy  to  be  absolutely  supreme  every- 
where. Like  Macedonia,  the  territory  of  Carthage,  called 
"Africa/'  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  province  under  a 
Roman  governor,  residing  at  Utica.  It  soon  became  a  Roman- 
ized country.  Its  commerce  passed  into  the  hands  of  Roman 
merchants ;  the  Roman  manners  and  customs  were  introduced ; 
and  the  Latin  language  became  the  language  of  the  people. 

Revolt  and  Subjugation  of  Spain. — While  the  Romans  were 
engaged  in  creating  the  new  provinces  of  Macedonia  and 
Africa,  they  were  called  upon  to  maintain  their  authority  in 
the  old  provinces  of  Spain  and  S.cily.  We  remember  that, 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS       341 

after  the  second  Punic  war,  Spain  was  divided  into  two  prov- 
inces, each  under  a  Roman  governor  (see  p.  331).  But  the 
Roman  authority  was  not  well  established  in  Spain,  except 
upon  tin*  eastern  coast.  The  tribes  in  the  interior  and  on  the 
western  coast  were  nearly  always  in  a  state  of  revolt.  The 
must  rebellious  of  these  tribes  were  the  Lusitanians  in  the 
west,  in  what  is  now  Portugal;  and  the  Celtiberians  (see  map, 
p.  324)  in  the  interior,  south  of  the  Ibe'rus  River.  In  their 
efforts  to  subdue  these  barbarous  peoples,  the  Romans  were 
themselves  too  often  led  to  adopt  the  barbarous  methods  of 
deceit  and  treachery. 

The  war  against  the  Lusitanians  was  disgraced  by  the 
treacherous  conduct  of  the  Roman  general,  Galba,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  the  heroic  deeds  of  the  young  Lusitanian  leader, 
Viria'thus.  But  after  nine  years  of  resistance  this  tribe  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  the  Roman  authority  (138  B.  c.). 

The  war  against  the  Celtiberians  centered  about  their  chief 
stronghold,  Numantia,  a  town  south  of  the  head  waters  of  the 
Iberus.  The  defense  of  Numantia,  like  that  of  Carthage,  was 
heroic  and  desperate.  Its  fate  was  also  like  that  of  Carthage. 
It  was  compelled  to  surrender  (133  B.  c.)  to  the  same  Scipio 
^Emilianus.  Its  people  were  sold  jnto  slavery,  and  the  town 
itself  was  blotted  from  the  earth. 

The  Servile  War  in  Sicily. — WKile  Spain  was  being  paci- 
fied, a  more  terrible  war  broke  out  in  the  province  of  Sicily. 
This  was  an  insurrection  of  the  slaves  of  the  island.  One  of 
the  worst  results  of  the  Roman  conquests  was  the  growth  of  the 
slave  system.  Immense  number?  of  the  captives  taken  in  war 
were  thrown  upon  the  market.  One  .hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand slaves  had  been  sold  by  JEmilius  Paullus;  fifty  thousand 
captives  had  been  sent  home  from  Carthage.  Italy  and  Sicily 
swarmed  with  a  servile  population.  It  was  in  Sicily  that  this 
system  bore  its  first  terrible  fruit.  Maltreated  by  their  mas- 
ters, the  slaves  rose  in  rebellion  under  a  leader,  called  Eunus, 
who  defied  the  Roman  power  for  three  years.  Nearly  two  hun- 


IPIROGKRICSSI  V  E 


:N"o.  15. 


343 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS       343 


dred  thousand  insurgents  gathered  about  his  standard.  Four 
Roman  armies  were  defeated  and  Rome  herself  was  thrown 
into  consternation.  After  the  most  desperate  resistance,  the 
rebellion  was'  finally  quelled  and  the  island  was  pacified 
(132  B.  c.). 

Pergamum,  the  First  Asiatic  Province. — This  long  period 
of  war  and  conquest,  by  which  Home  finally  obtained  the  proud 
position  of  mistress  of  the  Mediterranean,  was  closed  by  the 
almost  peaceful  acquisition  of 
a  new  province.  The  little 
kingdom  of  Pergamum,  in 
Asia  Minor,  had  maintained, 
for  the  most  part,  a  friendly 
relation  to  Rome.  When  the 
last  king,  Attalus  III.,  died 
(133  B.  c.),  having  no  legal 
heirs,  he  bequeathed  his  king- 
dom to  the  Roman  people. 
This  newly  acquired  territory 
was  organized  as  a  province 
under  the  name  of  "  Asia." 
The  smaller  states  of  Asia 

Minor,    and    Egvpt,   still    re- 
,   .          .,    .  ROME  MISTRESS  OF  THE  WORLD 

tamed  their  peaceful  and  sub- 
ordinate  relation  as  dependencies.     The  supreme   authority 
of  Rome,  at  home  and  abroad,  was  now  firmly  established. 


SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  THE  WARS  WITH  MACEDONIA  AND  SYRIA. — Relation  of  Rome 
to   the.  East. — The    First   Macedonian   War. — The    Second    Mace- 
donian War. — The  Liberation  of  Greece. — War  with  Antiochus  of 
Syria. — The  Third  Macedonian  War. 

II.  REDUCTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONQUESTS. — Change  of  the  Ro- 
man Policy. — Reduction   of  Macedonia  and   Tllyricum. — Destruc- 
tion of  Corinth  and  Reduction  of  Greece. — The  Third  Punic  War 
and  Reduction  of  Africa. — Revolt  and  Subjugation  of  Spain. — The 
Servile  War  in  Sicily. — Pergamum,  the  First  Asiatic  Province. 


344  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Pelham,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  2,  "Rome  and  the  East"  (18). l 

How.  and  Leigh,  Chs.  23-27,  "Fifty  Years  of  Conquest";   pp.  25!!- 

261  (the  eastern  states  and  their  rulers)    (18). 
Li.ldell,  Bk.  V.,  "Rome  and  the  Conquest  of  the  World"  (18). 
"Schuc'kburg-h,  Ch.  33,  "Wars  in  Spain"  (18). 
Monimsen,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  8,  "The  Eastern  States  and  the 

Second  Macedonian   War"   (18). 
Ihne,  History,  Vol.  III.,  Bk.  V.,  Ch.  4,  "Fall  of  Macedonia  and 

Greece"  (18). 

Plutarch,   "Flamininns"    (26). 
Livy,  Bk.  XXXIII.,  Chs.  32,  33  (the  liberation  of  Greece)   (25). 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

ROME  AS  A  WORLD  POWER 

I.     THE  CONQUESTS  AND  THE  GOVERNMENT 

Effects  of  the  Conquests. — By  her  conquest  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean lands  Borne  had  Womp  a  grpat  world  pnwpr  We  may 
well  wonder  what  would  be  the  effect  of  these  conquests  upon 
the  character  of  the  Roman  people,  upon  their  government,  and 
upon  their  civilization.  Many  of  these  effects  were  no  doubt 
very  bad.  By  their  conquests  the  Romans  came  to  be  ambi- 
tious, to  love  power  for  its  own  sake,  and  to  be  oppressive  to 
their  conquered  subjects.  By  plundering  foreign  countries, 
they  also  came  to  be  avaricious,  to  love  wealth  more  than  honor, 
to  indulge  in  luxury,  and  to  despise  the  simplicity  of  their 
fathers.  But  still  it  was  the  conquests  that  made  Rome  the 
great  power  that  she  was.  By  bringing  foreign  nations  under 
her  swav^ghe  was  obliged  to  control  them,  and  to  create  a  sys- 
tem of  law  by  which  they  could  be  governed.  In  spite  of  all 
its  faults,  her  government  was  the  most  successful  that  had 

*The  figure  In  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  In  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


ROME    AS   A    WORLD    POWER  345 

ever  existed  up  to  this  time.    It  was  the  way  in  which  Home 
secured  her  conquests  that  showed  the  real  character  of  the 
Koman  people.    The  chief  effect  of  the  conquests  was  to  trans- 
form Rome  from  the  greatest  conquering  people  of  the  world,  ' 
to  the  greatest  governing  people  of  the  world.  ^ 

The  New  Nobility. — During  the  whole  period  that  we  are 
now  studying,  the  Roman  government  was  a  republic.  But 
it  would  hardly  be  correct  to  think  of  Rome  at  any  time  as  a 
democratic  republic.  AVhen  the  old  kingdom  was  overthrown, 
the  new^jyp11^'^11  provernment  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
patrician  class.  And  when  the  political  distinction  between 
patricians  and  plebeians  was  broken  down,  there  was  soon 
developed  a  new  aristocracy,  made  up  of  the  richest  and  most 
influential  men  of  both  orders,  which  got  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment. This  new  nobility  was  not  based  upon  birth,  like 
the  old  patriciate,  but  upon  office-holding:  and  it  was  only  the 
superior  or  so-called  curule  offices — those  of  consul,  dictator, 
praetor,  and  curule  aedile — that  conferred  distinction.  All  those 
who  could  boast  of  an  ancestor  that  had  held  such  an  office  were 
regarded  as  nobles  (nobiles);  and  their  superior  distinction  con- 
sisted in  the  right  to  set  up  in  their  home  the  ancestral  image 
(jus  imaginis).  It  is  true  that  any  full  Roman  citizen  had  the 
legal  right  to  be  elected  to  a  curule  office;  but,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  noble  families  were  able  by  their  wealth  to  influence 
the  elections  so  as  practically  to  retain  these  offices  in  their  own 
hands. 

The  Nobility  and  the  Senate. — But  it  was  not  simply  the 
holding  of  the  curule  offices  that  gave  to  the  new  nobility 
'their  great  political  power.  It  was  the  fact  that  the  curule 
offices  opened  the  way  to  the  senate.  The  members  of  the 
senate  were  chosen  by  the  censor,  who  was  obliged  to  place 
upon  his  list,  first  of  all,  those  who  had  held  a  curule  office. 
On  this  account,  the  nobles  had  the  first  claim  to  a  seat  in 
the  senate;  and,  consequently,  they  came  to  form  the  great 
body  of  its  members.  When  a  person  was  once  chosen  senator 


346  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

he  remained  a  senator  for  life,  unless  disgraced  for  gross  mis- 
conduct. In  this  way  the  nobles  gained  possession  of  the 
senate,  which  became,  in  fact,  the  most  permanent  and  power- 
ful branch  of  the  Roman  government.  It  managed  the  fi- 
nances of  the  state;  controlled  the  erection  of  public  works; 
directed  the  foreign  policy;  administered  the  provinces;  de- 
termined largely  the  character  of  legislation ;  and  was,  in  fact, 
the  real  sovereign  of  the  Roman  state. 

The  Decline  of  the  Assemblies. — As  the  power  of  the  senate 
increased,  that  of  the  popular  assemblies  declined.    The  old 
patrician  assembly  of  the  curies  (comitia  curiata)  had  long 
since  been  reduced  to  a  mere  shadow.    But  the  other  two  assem- 
blies— that'  of  the  centuries  and  that  of  the  tribes — still  held 
an  important  place  as  legislative  bodies.    But  there  were  two 
reasons  why  they  declined  in  influence.    The  first  reason  was 
their  ujjwieldv  character.    As  they  grew  in  size  and  could  only  \ 
say  Yes  or  Wo  to  the  questions  submitted  to  them,  they  were^ 
made  subject  to  the  influence  of  demagogues,  and  lost  their  iny 
dependent  position.    The  second  reason  for  their  decline  was 
the  growing  custom  of  first  submitting  to  the  ?enate  the  pro-  \ 
posals  which  were  to  be  passed  upon  by  them.    So  that,  as  long  / 
as  the  senate  was  so  influential  in  the  state,  the  popular  assem-7 
blies  were  weak  and  inefficient. 

II.    ROME  AND  THE  PROVINCES 

Organization  of  the  Provinces. — The  most  important  fea- 
ture of  the  new  Roman  government  was  the  organization  of  the 
provinces.  There  were  now  eight  of  these  provinces:  (1) 
Sicily,  acquired  as  the  result  of  the  first  Punic  war;  (2)  Sar- 
dinia and  Corsica,  obtained  during  the  interval  between  the 
first  and  second  Punic  wars ;  (3)  Hither  Spain  and  (4)  Farther 
Spain,  acquired  in  the  second  Punic  war;  (f>)  Illyricum,  re- 
duced after  tho  tliird  Macedonian  war;  (6)  Macedonia  (towhich 
Achaia  was  attached),  reduced  with  the  destruction  of  Corinth; 


ROME    AS    A    WOULD    I'OWHIl 


347 


(7)  Africa,  organized  after  the  third  Punic  war;  and  (8)  Asia, 
bequeathed  by  Attalus  III.,  the  last  king  of  Pergamum. 

The  method  of  organizing  these  provinces  was  in  some  re- 
spects similar  to  that  which  had  been  adopted  for  governing 
the  cities  in  Italy.  Borne  saw 
clearly  that  to  control  these  newly 
conquered  cities  and  communities, 
they  must,  like  the  cities  of  Italy, 
be  isolated,  that  is,  separated  en- 
tirely from  one  another,  so  that 
they  could  not  combine  in  any 
jeffort  to  resist  her  authority. 

j  Every  city  was  made  directly  re- 

j   sponsible    to    Rome.      The   great 

\  difference  between  the  Italian 
and  the  provincial  town  was  the 
fact  that  the  chief  burden  of  the 
Italian  town  was  to  furnish  mili- 
tary aid — soldiers  and  ships; 
while  that  of  the  provincial  town 
was  to  furnish  tribute — money  and  grain.  Another  difference 
was  that  Italian  land  was  generally  free  from  taxes,  while 
provincial  land  was  subject  to  tribute. 

The  Provincial  Governor. — A  province  might  be  defined  as 
a  group  of  conquered  cities,  outside  of  Italy,  under  the  control 
of  a  governor  sent  from  Rome.  At  first  these  governors  were 
praetors,  who  were  elected  by  the  people.  Afterward  they  were 
propraetors  or  proconsuls — that  is,  persons  who  had  already 
served  as  praetors  or  consuls  at  Rome.  The  governor  held  his 
office  for  one  year;  and  during  this  time  was  the  supreme  mili- 
tary and  civil  ruler  of  the  province.  He  was  commander  in  chief 
of  the  army,  and  was  expected  to  preserve  his  territory  from 
internal  disorders  and  from  foreign  invasion.  He  controlled  the 
collection  of  the  taxes,  with  the  aid  of  the  quaestor,  who  kept 
the  accounts.  He  also  administered  justice  between  the  provin- 


THE  CAPTIVE  PROVINCE 


348  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

cials  of  different  cities.  Although  the  governor  was  responsi- 
ble to  the  senate,  the  welfare  or  misery  of  the  provincials  de- 
pended largely  upon  his  own  disposition  and  will. 

The  Towns  of  the  Province. — All  the  towns  of  the  province 
were  subject  to  Rome:  but  it  was  Rome's  policy  not  to  treat 
them  all  in  exactly  the  same  way.  Like  the  cities  of  Italy, 
they  were  graded  according  to  their  merit.  Some  were  favored, 
like  Gades  and  Athens,  and  were  treated  as  allied  towns 
(civitates  fcederatce);  others,  like  Utica,  were  free  from  tribute 
(immune*);  but  the  great  majority  of  them  were  considered  as 
tributary  (stipendiaries).  But  all  these  towns  alike  possessed 
local  self-government,  so  far  as  this  was  consistent  with  the 
supremacy  of  Rome;  that  is,  they  retained  their  own  laws,  as- 
semblies, and  magistrates. 

The  Administration  of  Justice. — In  civil  matters,  the  citi- 
zens of  every  town  were  judged  by  their  own  magistrates.  But 
when  a  dispute  arose  between  citizens  of  different  towns,  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  governor  to  judge  between  them.  At  the 
beginning  of  his  term  of  office,  he  generally  issued  an  edict, 
setting  forth  the  rules  upon  which  he  would  decide  such  dif- 
ferences. Each  succeeding  governor  reissued  the  rules  of  his 
predecessor,  with  the  additions  which  he  saw  fit  to  make.  In 
this  way  there  grew  up  a  body  of  common  law  which  applied 
to  the  whole  province  and  was  intended  to  afford  justice  in 
cases  not  reached  by  the  existing  town  laws.  The  people  of 
the  province  were  thus  united  under  a  common  judicial  system, 
and  their  rights  were  protected  in  their  dealings  with  one 
another. 

The  Collection  of  Taxes. — The  Roman  revenue  was  mainly 
derived  from  the  new  provinces.  But  instead  of  raising  these 
taxes  directly  through  her  own  officers,  Rome  let  out  the  busi- 
ness of  collecting  the  revenue  to  a  set  of  money  dealers,  called 
publica'ni.  These  persons  agreed  to  pay  into  the  treasury  a 
certain  sum  for  tin-  ri^lit  of  collecting  taxes  in  a  certain  prov- 
ince. Whatever  they  collected  above  this  sum,  they  appropri- 


ROME   AS   A    WORLD   TOWER  349 

ated  to  themselves.  This  rude  mode  of  collecting  taxes,  called 
"  farming  "  the  revenues,  was  unworthy  of  a  great  state  like 
Rome,  and  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  oppression  of  the  provin- 
cials. The  governors,  it  is  true,  had  the  power  of  protecting  the 
people  from  being  plundered.  But  as  they  themselves  re- 
ceived no  pay  for  their  services,  except  what  they  could  get  out 
of  the  provinces,  they  were  too  busy  in  making  their  own  for- 
tunes to  watch  closely  the  methods  of  the  tax-gatherers. 

III.     THE  NEW  CIVILIZATION 

Foreign  Influences;  Hellenism. — When  we  think  of  the  con- 
quests of  Rome,  we  usually  think  of  the  battles  which  she 
fought,  of  the  armies  which  she  defeated,  and  the  lands  which 
she  subdued.  But  these  were  not  the  only  conquests  which  she 
made.  She  appropriated  not  only  foreign  lands,  but  also  for- 
eign ideas.  While  she  was  plundering  foreign  temples,  she  was 
obtaining  new  ideas  of  religion  and  art.  The  educated  and 
civilized  people  whom  she  captured  in  war  and  of  whom  she 
made  slaves,  often  became  the  teachers  of  her  children  and  the 
writers  of  her  books.  In  such  ways  as  these  Rome  came  under 
the  influence  of  foreign  ideas.  The  most  powerful  of  these 
foreign  influences  was  that  of  Greece.  The  conquest  of  Greece 
led  to  the  introduction  of  Hellenism  into  Rome.  We  might 
say  that  when  Greece  was  conquered  by  Rome,  Rome  was  civi- 
lized by  Greece.  These  foreign  influences  were  seen  in  her  new 
ideas  of  religion  and  philosophy,  in  her  literature,  her  art,  and 
her  manners. 

The  Roman  Religion. — As  Rome  came  into  contact  with 
other  people,  we  pan  see  how  her  religion  was  affected  by  for- 
eign influences.  The  worship  of  the  family  remained  much 
the  same;  but  the  religion  of  the  state  became  consider- 
ably changed.  It  is  said  that  the  entire  Greek  Olympus  was 
introduced  into  Italy.  The  Romans  adopted  the  Greek  ideas 
and  stories  regarding  the  gods;  and  their  worship  became  more 


350  THE    KOMAN    WORLD 

showy  and  elaborate.  Even  some  of  the  superstitious  and  fan- 
tastic rites  of  Asia  found  their  way  into  Rome.  These  changes 
did  not  improve  the  religion.  On  the  contrary,  they  made  it 
more  corrupt.  The  Roman  religion,  by  absorbing  the  various 
ideas  of  other  people,  became  a  world-wide  and  composite  form 


TEMPLES  OF  LOYALTY,  JUNO,  AND  HOPE 

One  of  the  redeeming  features  of  the  Roman  re- 
ligion was  the  worship  of  exalted  qualities,  like  Honor  and 
Virtue;  for  example,  alongside  of  the  temple  to  Juno,  temples 
were  also  erected  to  Loyalty  and  Hope. 

Koman  Philosophy. — The  more  educated  Romans  lost  their 
interest  in  religion,  and  betook  themselves  to  the  study  of 
Greek  philosophy.  They  studied  the  nature  of  the  gods  and 
the  moral  duties  of  men.  In  this  way  the  Greek  ideas  of 
philosophy  found  their  way  into  Rome.  Some  of  these  ideas, 
like  those  of  the  Stoics,  were  elevating,  and  tended  to  preserve 
the  simplicity  and  strength  of  the  old  Roman  character.  But 
other  ideas,  like  those  of  the  Epicureans,  seemed  to  justify  a 
life  of  pleasure  and  luxury. 

Roman  Literature. — Before  the  Romans  came  into  contact 
with  the  Creeks,  they  did  not  have  anything  which  can  prop- 
er! v  he  called  a  literature.  They  had,  it  is  true,  eerlain 
crude  verses  and  ballads;  but  it  was  the  Greeks  wjio  first 


ROME    AS   A    WORLD    POWER  351 

taught  them  how  to  write.  It  was  not  until  the  close  of  the 
first  Punic  war,  when  the  Greek  influence  became  strong,  that 
we  begin  to  find  the  names  of  any  Latin  authors.  The  first 
author,  Androni'cus,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a  Greek  slave, 
wrote  a  Latin  poem  in  imitation  of  Homer.  Then  came 
Na3vius,  who  combined  a  Greek  taste  with  a  Roman  spirit,  and 
who  wrote  a  poem  on  the  first  Punic  war;  and  after  him, 
Ennius,  who  taught  Greek  to  the  Romans,  and  wrote  a  great 
poem  on  the  history  of  Rome,  called  the  "  Annals."  The 
Greek  influence  is  also  seen  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  the 
greatest  writers  of  Roman  comedy;  and  in  Fabius  Pictor,  who 
wrote  a  history  of  Rome,  in  the  Greek  language. 

Roman  Art. — As  the  Romans  were  a  practical  people,  their 
earliest  art  was  shown  in  their  buildings.  From  the  Etruscans 
they  had  learned  to  use  the  arch  and  to  build  strong  and  mass- 
ive structures.  But  the  more  refined  features  of  art  they  ob- 
tained from  the  Greeks.  While  the  Romans  could  never  hope 
to  acquire  the  pure  aesthetic  spirit  of  the  Greeks,  they  were  in- 
spired with  a  passion  for  collecting  Greek  works  of  art,  and 
for  adorning  their  buildings  with  Greek  ornaments.  They 
imitated  the  Greek  models  and  professed  to  admire  the  Greek 
taste ;  they  came  to  be,  in  fact,  the  preservers  of  Greek  art. 

Koman  Manners  and  Morals. — It  is  difficult  for  us  to  think 
of  a  nation  of  warriors  as  a  nation  of  refined  people.  The  bru- 
talities of  war  seem  inconsistent  with  the  finer  arts  of  living. 
But  as  the  Romans  obtained  wealth  from  their  wars,  they  af- 
fected the  refinement  of  their  more  cultivated  neighbors.  Some 
men,  like  Scipio  Africanus,  looked  with  favor  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  Greek  ideas  and  manners;  but  others,  like  Cato  the 
Censor,  were  bitterly  opposed  to  it.  When  the  Romans  lost  the 
simplicity  of  the  earlier  times,  they  came  to  indulge  in  luxuries 
and  to  be  lovers  of  pomp  and  show.  They  loaded  their  tables 
with  rich  services  of  plate;  they  ransacked  the  land  and  the 
sea  for  delicacies  with  which  to  please  their  palates.  Roman 
culture  was  often  more  artificial  than  real.  The  survival  of  the 


352 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


barbarous  spirit  of  the  Romans  in  the  midst  of  their  professed 
refinement  is  seen  in  their  amusements,  especially  the  gladiato- 
rial shows,  in  which  men  were  forced  to  fight  with  wild  beasts 
and  with  one  another  to  entertain  the  people. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  say  that  by  their  conquests  the  Ro- 
mans became  a  great  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  civilized  people, 


THE  GLADIATOR 

who  appropriated  and  preserved  many  of  the  best  elements  of 
the  ancient  world.  They  began  to  show  a  genius  for  political 
organization  far  superior  to  that  hitherto  shown  by  any  other 
nation,  and  to  develop  a  progressive  system  of  law  based  upon 
broader  ideas  of  justice.  But  still  they  came  to  be  selfish, 
ambitious,  and  avaricious,  and  failed  to  acquire  the  genuine 
taste  and  generous  spirit  which  belong  to  the  highest  type  of 
human  culture. 


ROME   AS   A    WORLD   POWER  353 


SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  CONQUESTS  AND  THE  GOVERNMENT. — Effects  of  the  Con- 
quests.—The  New  Nobility.— The  Nobility  and  the  Senate.— The 
Decline  of  the  Assemblies. 

II.  ROME  AND  THE  PROVINCES. — Organization  of  the  Provinces. 
— The   Provincial   (iovernor. — The  Towns  of  the   Province. — The 
Administration  of  Justice. — The  Collection  of  Taxes. 

III.  THE  NEW  CIVILIZATION.— Foreign  Influences;  Hellenism.— 
The  Roman  Religion. — Roman  Philosophy. — Roman  Literature. — 
Roman  Art. — Roman  Manners  and  Morals. 


REFERENCES    FOR    BEADING 

Pelham,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  3,   "The  Roman   State  and   People"    (18). » 

How  and  Leigh,  Chs.  28-30,  "Internal  History"  (266-146  B.  c.)  (18). 

Merivale,  General  History,  Chs.  26,  27,  "Rome  after  the  Con- 
quests" (18). 

Liddell,  Chs.  49,  50,  "Rome  at  the  Close  of  the  Conquests"   (18). 

Mommsen,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  11,  "The  Government  and  the 
Governed";  pp.  470-491  (the  new  Hellenism  and  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  luxuries);  pp.  500-518  (the  Roman  drama) (18). 

Abbott,  Ch.  5,  "The  Supremacy  of  the  Nobilitas"  (22). 

Harper's  Classical  Dictionary,  "Provincia,"  "Stipendium,"  "Pub- 
licani,"  "Vectigalia"  (19). 

Granrud,  Third  Period,  "The  Supremacy  of  the  Senate"  (22). 

Taylor,  pp.  212-234   (the  supremacy  of  the  senate)    (22). 

Arnold,  Ch.  1,  "What  a  Province  Was";  Ch.  2,  "Period  of  the 
Republic";  Ch.  6,  "Towns  in  the  Provinces"  (22). 

Friedlander,  pp.  21-30  (the  classes  in  the  towns);  pp.  30-43  (the 
finances  in  the  towns)  (19). 

Seignobos,  Ch.  11,  "The  Results  of  Conquest";  Ch.  12,  "Social 
and  Political  Transformation"  (18). 

Munro,  Source  Book,  Part  VII.,  "Results  of  Foreign  Wars"  (25). 

Plutarch,  "Cato  the  Censor"  (26). 

irThe   figure   in   parenthesis   refers   to  the  number  of  the   topic  in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  III,     TRANSITION  PROM   THE  REPUBLIC  TO   THE 
EMPIRE  (133-31  B,  0.) 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

THE  REVOLUTION  UNDER  THE  GRACCHI 

I.    CAUSES  OF  CIVIL  DISCONTENT 

General  Decay  of  Patriotism. — We  have  seen  some  of  the 
more  direct  results  of  the  wars  and  conquests  of  Rome — in  the 
extension  of  her  authority  over  foreign  lands  and  in  making 
her  a  world  power,  in  the  changes  brought  about  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  the  introduction  of  new  elements  of  civilization. 
But  if  we  look  a  little  deeper  into  Roman  society  we  shall  see 
that  her  conquests  also  brought  with  them  many  evils,  which 
resulted  in  civil  strife,  and  finally  in  the  overthrow  of  the  re- 
public. One  great  evil  which  now  began  to  show  itself  was  the 
decay  of  patriotism  among  the  Roman  people.  While  the  wars 
may  have  been  looked  upon  by  some  as  a  means  to  glorify  the 
Roman  state,  they  were  regarded  by  many  as  affording  an  op- 
portunity to  appropriate  the  spoils  of  conquest.  The  men  who 
conducted  these  wars  and  who  ruled  the  conquered  land,  were 
often  more  anxious  to  benefit  and  enrich  themselves  than  to 
promote  the  public  good.  Those  who  were  intrusted  with  offi- 
cial duties  became  more  devoted  to  their  own  interests  than  to 
the  common  interests  of  the  whole  people. 

Class  Distinctions. — We  may  find  some  special  causes  of  civil 
discontent  in  the  wide  separation  between  the  different  classes 

354 


REVOLUTION    UNDER    THE    GRACCHI  355 

of  Roman  society,  each  having  its   own  distinct  interests. 
These  different  classes  may  be  arranged  as  follows: 

(1)  First  and  above  all  others  were  the  aristocratic  classes. 
These  consisted  of  (a)  the  senatorial  order — men  who  kept  con- 
trol of  the  higher  offices,  who  furnished  the  members  of  the 
senate,  and  who  really  ruled  the  state;  and  (b)  the  equestrian 
order — men  who  were  called  equites,  or  knights,  on  account  of 
their  great  wealth,  who  formed  the  moneyed  class,  the  capital- 
ists of  Rome,  and  who.  made  their  fortunes  by  all  sorts  of  spec- 
ulation, especially  by  gathering  the  taxes  in  the  provinces. 

(2)  Next  below  the  aristocratic  classes  came  the  body  of 
poorer  Roman  citizens.     These  comprised  (a)  the  great  mass 
of  the  city  population — the  poor  artisans  and  paupers,  who 
formed  a  rabble  and  the  materials  of  a  mob,  and  who  lived  upon 
public  charity  and  the  bribes  of  office-seekers,  and  were  amused 
by  public  shows  given  by  the  state  or  by  rich  citizens;  and  (b) 
the  poor  country  farmers  living  upon  the  Roman  domain — the 
peasants,  many  of  whom  had  been  deprived  of  their  lands  by 
rich  creditors  or  by  the  avaricious  policy  of  the  government. 

(3)  Outside  of  the  Roman  domain  were  the   non-citizen 
classes.    These  included  (a)  the  Latin  colonists,  who  were  set- 
tled upon  conquered  lands  in  Italy,  who  had  practically  no  po- 
litical rights,  and  who  were  in  very  much  the  same  social  condi- 
tion as  the  Roman  peasants;  (b)  the  Italian  allies,  who  had  been 
subdued  by  Rome  in  early  times,  and  had  been  given  none  of 
the  rights  of  citizenship;  and  (c)  the  provincials,  outside  of 
Italy,  some  of  them  favored  by  being  left  free  from  taxation, 
but  the  mass  of  them  subject  to  the  Roman  tribute,  and  all  of 
them  excluded  from  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizens. 

(4)  Finally,  if  we  go  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  Roman  pop- 
ulation, we  find  the  slaves,  having  none  of  the  rights  of  citizens 
or  of  men.     The  house  slaves  were  treated  with  some  consider- 
ation; but  the  field  slaves  were  treated  wretchedly,  chained  in 
gangs  by  day  and  confined  in  dungeons  by  night. 

Economic  Conditions. — Never  was  the  economic  condition  of 


356  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

the  Roman  people  more  deplorable  than  it  was  after  the  period 
of  the  great  conquests.  Not  only  had  the  population  of  Italy 
been  depleted  by  the  wars,  but  there  were  several  causes  which 
tended  to  keep  the  people  in  a  state  of  poverty  and  distress. 
Among  these  were: 

(1)  The  unequal   distribution   of  wealth. — Rome  had   ac- 
quired great  riches  as  the  result  of  her  wars;  but  this  wealth 
was  appropriated  by  the  moneyed  class — the  speculators  and 
contractors.     The  desire  to  make  money  and  to  accumulate 
wealth  became  a  passion  among  this  class.     But  the  poorer 
classes  received  no  benefit  from  this  increase  of  wealth ;  so  that 
the  rich  were  actually  becoming  richer,  and  the  poor  poorer. 

(2)  The  growth  of  large  estates. — The  public  lands  of  Italy 
passed  into  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  few  landlords.    The 
Licinian  laws,  enacted  more  than  two  centuries  before  (p.  296), 
had  become  a  dead  letter;  and  the  small  farms  had  practically 
disappeared.    The  growth  of  large  estates  thus  benefited  one 
class  of  the  people  at  the  expense  of  the  rest.    The  evils  of  such 
a  system  were  afterward  pointed  out  by  Pliny,  who  said  that  it 
was  the  large  estates  which  ruined  Italy. 

(3)  The  decay  of  agriculture  and  of  the  peasant  class. — The 
lands  of  Italy  ceased  for  the  most  part  to  be  tilled,  since  the 
large  estates  were  turned  into  cattle  ranches  and  sheep  pastures. 
The  raising  of  grain  ceased  to  be  profitable,  as  agricultural 
products  could  be  obtained  more  cheaply  from  Egypt  and  the 
provinces.    The  absorption  of  the  small  farms  and  the  decline 
of  agriculture  led  to  the  decay  of  the  peasant  class.    The  small 
farmers  were  driven  into  the  army;  and  if  they  returned  from 
the  field,  they  flocked  to  Rome  to  reenforce  the  city  rabble. 

(4)  The  evils  of  slave  labor. — The  great  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  slaves  brought  into  Italy  from  the  conquered  lands  not 
only  tended  to  degrade  the  condition  of  the  slaves  themselves, 
but  also  to  render  it  unprofitable  to  employ  the  free  laborers. 
In  addition  to  the  loss  of  their  lands  and  the  inability  to  ob- 
tain capital,  the  common  people  were  thus  deprived  of  the 


REVOLUTION    UNDER    THE    GRACCHI  357 

value  of  their  labor;  and  hence  they  lost  the  last  means  of  ob- 
taining an  honest  living. 

Political  Evils. — There  were  also  political  reasons  for  the 
discontent  which  prevailed  among  the  Roman  people  and  which 
was  destined  to  break  forth  in  riot  and  revolution.  For  exam- 
ple, we  may  mention: 

(1)  The  .sr///N//  rule  of  the  senate. — The  absorption  of  politi- 
cal  power  by  the  senate  made  this  body  responsible  for  the  evils 
of  the  state,  so  far  as  these  evils  could  be  remediedjj  y  ^legisla- 
tion^Butjthe  senate  was  a  body  of  oligarchs,  rulmg  the  people 
for  itstrwrr benefit.    Its  policy  seemed  to  be  to  benefit  the  aris- 
tocratic classes  only,  having  little  concern  for  the  welfare  of 
the  great  body  of  Roman  citizens  and  subjects. 

(2)  The  practical  disfranchisement  of  the  people. — With  the 
growing  power  of  the  senate,  the  popular  assemblies,  as  we 
have  seen  (p.  346),  were  less  and  less  important  as  organs  of 
legislation.     This  means  that  the  political  rights  which  the 
people  legally  possessed  had  little  real  significance.    Their  elec- 
tions were  controlled  by  demagogues  and  influenced  by  bribery; 
and  they  could  pass  upon  no  laws  which  were  not  submitted  to 
them.     By  thus  being  deprived  of  an  effective  voice  in  the 
government,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  people  were 
practically  disfranchised. 

(3)  The  abandonment  of  the  policy  of  incorporation. — We 
know  how  the  early  state  had  become  strong  by  the  incorpora- 
tion of  its  subjects.    But  this  .policy  had  been  abandoned  after 
the  introduction  of  the  "plebeians.    With  the  conquest  of  Italy 
ancfthe  provinces  millions  of  new  subjects  had  been  brought 
under  .the  Roman  authority,  but  not  admitted  to  the  Roman 
state.    The  new  subjects  in  Italy — that  is,  the  Latin  colonists 
and  the  Italian  allies — were  now  desirous  of  being  admitted  to 
political  rights;  although  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  see  how  their 
condition  would  have  been  improved  without  some  radical  re- 
forms in  the  government. 

(4)  The  oppression  of  the  provinces. — The  inhabitants  of  the 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. 21 


358  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

provinces  were  especially  the  victims  of  Roman  misrule.  On  ac- 
count of  the  wretched  system  of  taxation  the  provincials  held 
their  property  at  the  disposal  of  the  tax-gatherer.  The  prop- 
erty that  was  left  by  the  tax-gatherer  was  often  seized  by  the 
1  governor  of  the  province  to  add  to  his  spoils  of  office.  It  is  very 
seldom  that  we  hear  of  the  governor  being  called  to  account  for 
his  acts  of  oppression. 

From  the  enumeration  of  the  evils  in  the  Roman  state  we 
need  not  wonder  at  the  prevailing  discontent  and  the  disposi- 
tion to  revolt  against  the  existing  government.  The  people, 
after  a  time,  became  divided  into  two  principal  parties:  the 
aristocratic  party  (optima  tes),  or  those  who  supported  the  pol- 
icy of  the  senate;  and  the  popular  party  (popula'res),  or  those 
who  sought  to  bring  about  reform.  The  conflicts  between  these 
factions  resulted  in  revolution,  in  civil  wars,  and  finally  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  republic. 

II.     THE  REFORMS  OF  TIBERIUS  GRACCHUS 

Character  of  Tiberius  Gracchus. — The  first  serious  attempt 
to  remedy  the  existing  evils  was  made  by  Tibe'rius  Sempronius 
Gracchus.  He  was  the  elder  of  two  brothers  who  sacrificed 
their  lives  in  efforts  to  benefit  their  fellow-citizens.  Their 
mother  was  the  noble-minded  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  the 
great  Scipio  Africanus.  Tiberius  when  a  young  man  had  served 
in  the  Spanish  army  under  Scipio  /Emilianus,  the  distin- 
guished Roman  who  conquered  Carthage  and  Numantia.  It  is 
said  that  when  Tiberius  Gracchus  passed  through  Etruria,  on 
his  way  to  and  from  Spain,  he  was  shocked  to  see  the  fertile 
fields  cultivated  by  gangs  of  slaves,  while  thousands  of  five 
citizens  were  living  in  idleness  and  poverty.  He  was  a  man  of 
refined  nature  and  a  deep  sense  of  justice,  and  he  determined 
to  do  \\-liMt  he  could  to  remedy  these  evils. 

His  Agrarian  Laws. — Tiberius  Gracchus  was  elected  irihune 
and  be<:;iM  his  work  of  reform  in  133  B.  C.  He  believed  llmt 


REVOLUTION    UNDER    THE    GRACCHI  359 

the  wretched  condition  of  the  Koman  people  was  due  chiefly  to 
the  unequal  division  of  the  public  land,  and  especially  to  the 
failure  to  enforce  the  Licir.ian  laws.  He  therefore  proposed 
to  revive  these  laws;  to  limit  the  holding  of  public  land  to 
five  hundred  iugcra  (about  three  hundred  acres)  for  each  per- 
son; to  pay  the  present  holders  for  any  improvements  they  had 
inado;  and  then  to  rent  the  land  thus  taken  up  to  the  poorer 


THE  GRACCHI 

class  of  citizens.  This  seemed  fair  enough;  for  the  state  was 
the  real  owner  of  the  public  land,  and  could  do  what  it  wished 
with  its  own.  But  the  rich  landlords,  who  had  held  possession 
of  this  land  for  so  many  years,  looked  upon  the  measure  as  the 
same  thing  as  taking  away  their  own  property ;  and  there  im- 
mediately arose  a  fierce  conflict  between  the  old  senatorial 
party  and  the  followers  of  Tiberius. 


3  GO  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

His  Illegal  Action. — Tiberius  determined  to  pass  his  law  in 
the  assembly,  without  the  approval  of  the  senate.  The  senate, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  equally  determined  that  the  law  should 
not  be  passed.  Accordingly,  the  senators  induced  one  of  the 
tribunes,  whose  name  was  M.  Octa'vius,  to  put  his  u  veto  "  upon 
the  passage  of  the  law.  This  act  of  Octavius  was  entirely  legal, 
for  he  did  what  the  law  gave  him  the  right  to  do.  Tiberius,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  order  to  qutdo  his  opponent,  had  recourse  to 
a  high-handed  measure.  Instead  of  waiting  a  year  for  the  elec- 
tion of  new  tribunes  who  might  be  devoted  to  the  people's 
cause,  he  called  upon  the  people  to  deprive  Octavius  of  his  of- 
fice. \  This,  was  an  illegal  act,  because  there  was  no  law  which 
authorized  such  a  proceeding.  But  the  people  did  as  Tiberius 
desired,  and  Octavius  was  deposed.  The  law  of  Tiberius  was 
then  passed  in  the  assembly  of  the  tribes,  and  three  commis- 
sioners were  chosen  to  carry  it  into  effect. 

Fall  of  Tiberius  Gracchus. — The  law  of  Tiberius  and  the 
method  which  he  had  used  to  pass  it  increased  the  bitter- 
ness between  the  aristocratic  party  and  the  popular  party. 
Contrary  to  law  Tiberius  announced  himself  as  a  candidate  for 
reelection.  The  day  appointed  for  the  election  came.  Two 
tribes  had  already  voted  for  the  reelection  of  Tiberius,  when  a 
band  of  senators  appeared  in  the  Forum,  headed  by  Scipio 
Nasi'ca,  armed  with  sticks  and  clubs;  and  in  the  riot  which 
ensued  Tiberius  Gracchus  and  three  hundred  of  his  followers 
were  slain.  This  was  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  civil  wars  of 
Rome.  The  killing  of  a  tribune  by  the  senators  was  as  much 
an  illegal  act  as  was  the  deposition  of  Octavius.  Both  parties 
had  disregarded  the  law,  and  the  revolution  was  begun. 


III.    THE  REFORMS  OP  GAIUS  GRACCHUS 

The  Rise  of  Gains  Gracchus. — After  the  deatli  of  Tiberius 
his  law  was  for  a  timo  carried  into  execution.  Th>>  commis- 
sioners proceeded  with  their  work  of  redividing  the  land. 


; 


REVOLUTION    UNDER    THE    GRACCHI  361 


But  the  people  were  for  a  time  without  a  real  leader. 
cause  of  reform  was  then  taken  up  by  Gaius  Gracchus,  the 
brother  of  Tiberius,  and  the  conflict  was  renewed.  Gaius  was 
in  many  respects  an  abler  man  than  Tiberius.  No  more  sin- 
cere and  patriotic,  he  was  yet  a  broader  statesman  and  took  a 
wider  view  of  the  situation.  He  did  not  confine  his  attention 
simply  to  relieving  the  poor  citizens.  He  believed  that  to 
rescue  Rome  from  her  troubles,  it  was  necessary  to  weaken  the 
power  of  the  senate,  whose  selfish  and  avaricious  policy  had 
brought  on  these  troubles.  He  also  believed  that  the  Latins 
and  the  Italians  should  be  protected,  as  well  as  the  poor  Roman 
citizens. 

His  Efforts  to  Benefit  the  People.  —  When  Gaius  Gracchus 
obtained  the  position  of  tribune  (133  E.  c.)  his  influence  for  a 
time  was  all-powerful.  He  was  eloquent  and  persuasive,  and 
practically  had  the  control  of  the  government.  From  his 
various  laws  we  may  select  those  which  were  the  most  impor- 
tant, and  which  best  show  his  general  policy.  First  of  all,  he 
tried  to  help  the  people  by  a  law  which  was  really  the  most 
mischievous  of  all  his  measures.  This  was  his  famous  "corn 
law."  It  was  intended  to  benefit  the  poor  population  in  the 
city,  which  was  at  that  time  troublesome  and  not  easy  to  con- 
trol. The  law  provided  that  any  Roman  citizen  could  receive 
grain  from  the  public  storehouses  for  a  certain  price  less  than 
its  cost.  Gaius  may  not  have  known  what  evil  effect  this  law 
was  destined  to  produce.  But  it  insured  his  popularity  with 
the  lower  classes.  He  then  renewed  the  agrarian  laws  of 
his  brother;  and  also  provided  for  sending  out  colonies  of 
poor  citizens  into  different  parts  of  Italy,  and  even  into  the 
provinces. 

His  Effort  to  Weaken  the  Senate.  —  But  Gaius  believed 
that  such  measures  as  these  would  afford  only  temporary  re- 
lief, as  long  as  the  senate  retained  its  great  power.  It  was,  of 
course,  impossible  to  overthrow  the  senate.  But  it  was  possi- 
ble to  take  from  it  some  of  the  powers  which  it  possessed. 


362  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

From  the  senators  had  hitherto  been  selected  the  jurors 
(iu'dices}  before  whom  were  tried  cases  of  extortion  and  other 
crimes.  /By  a  law  Gaius  took  away  from  the  senate  this  right 
to  furnish  jurors  in  criminal  cases,  and  gave  it  to  the  equites, 
that  is,  the  wealthy  class  outside  of  the  senate.  This  gave  to 
the  equites  a  more  important  political  position,  and  drew  them 
over  to  the  support  of  Gains,  and  thus  tended  to  split  the  aris- 
tocratic classes  in  two.  The  senate  was  thus  deprived  not  only 
of  its  right  to  furnish  jurors,  but  also  of  the  support  of  the 
wealthy  men  who  had  previously  been  friendly  to  it.  This  was 
a  great  triumph  for  the  popular  party ;  and  Gaius  looked  for- 
ward to  another  victory. 

His  Effort  to  Enfranchise  the  Italians. — When  he  was  re- 
elected  to  the  tribunate  Gaius  Gracchus  came  forward  with  his 
grand  scheme  of  extending  the  Roman  franchise  to  the  people 
of  Italy.  This  was  the  wisest  of  all  his  measures,  but  the  one 
which  cost  him  his  popularity  and  influence.  It  aroused  the 
jealousy  of  the  poorer  citizens,  who  did  not  wish  to  share  their 
rights  with  foreigners.  The  senators  took  advantage  of  the 
unpopularity  of  Gaius,  and  now  posed  as  the  friends  of  the 
people.  They  induced  one  of  the  tribunes,  by  the  name  of 
Drusus,  to  play  the  part  of  a  demagogue.  Drusus  proposed 
to  found  twelve  new  colonies  at  once,  each  with  three  thou- 
sand Roman  citizens,  and  thus  to  put  all  the  reforms  of  Gaius 
Gracchus  into  the  shade.  The  people  were  deceived  by  this 
stratagem,  and  the  attempt  of  Gaius  to  enfranchise  the  Italians 
was  defeated. 

His  Failure  and  Death. — Gaius  did  not  succeed,  as  he  de- 
sired, in  being  elected  tribune  for  the  third  time.  A  great 
part  of  the  people  soon  abandoned  him,  and  the  ascendency  of 
the  senate  was  again  restored.  It  was  not  long  before  a  new 
law  was  passed  which  prevented  any  further  distribution  of 
the  public  land  (lex  Thoria).  Gaius  failed  to  bring  about  the 
reforms  which  he  attempted;  but  lie  ni;i\  In-  regarded  as  hav- 
ing accomplished  tlnvc  things  which  remained  after  his  death: 


REVOLUTION    UNDER    THE    GRACCHI  3G3 

(1)  the  elevation  of  the  equestrian  order;  (2)  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Roman  poor  law,  or  the  system  of  grain  largesses; 
and  (3)  the  extension  of  the  colonial  system  to  the  provinces. 
He  lost  his  life  in  a  tumult  in  which  three  thousand  citizens 
were  slain  (121  B.  c.). 

Thus' in  a  similar  way  perished  the  two  Gracchi,  who  had 
attempted  to  rescue  the  Roman  people  from  the  evils  of  a  cor- 
rupt government.  Their  efforts  at  agrarian  reform  did  not  pro- 
duce any  lasting  effect;  but  they  pointed  out  the  dangers  of 
the  state,  and  drew  the  issues  upon  which  their  successors  con- 
tinued the  conflict.  Their  career  forms  the  first  phase  in  the 
great  civil  conflict  at  Rome. 

SYNOPSIS    FOR    REVIEW 

I.  CAUSES   OF   CIVIL   DISCONTENT. — General    Decay   of   Patriot- 
ism.— Class  Distinctions. — Economic  Conditions. — Political  Evils. 

II.  THE  REFORMS  OF  TIBERIUS  GRACCHUS. — Character  of  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus. — His  Agrarian  Laws. — His  Illegal  Action. — Fall  of 
Tiberius  Gracchus. 

III.  THE  REFORMS    OF   GAIUS   GRACCHUS. — The    Rise    of    Gaius 
Gracchus.— His    Efforts    to    Benefit    the    People.— His    Effort   to 
Weaken  the   Senate. — His  Effort  to   Enfranchise  the   Italians. — 
His  Failure  and  Death. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Pelham,  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  1,  "From  the  Gracchi  to  Sulla"   (18). * 

Beesly,  Ch.  1,    "Antecedents  of  the  Revolution"  (18). 

Ihne,  History,  Vol.  IV.,  Bk.  VII.,  Ch.  1,  "Political  and  Economical 
Conditions";  Ch.  3,  "Scipio  ^Emilianus"  (18). 

How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  33,  "Internal  Affairs  and  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus"; Ch.  34,  "Gaius  Gracchus"  (18). 

Taylor,  Ch.  9,  "The  Reformers"  (22). 

Mommsen,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  12,  "Management  of  Land"  (18). 
-  Abridged,  Ch.  20,  "Reforms  of  the  Gracchi"  (18). 

Harper's  Classical  Dictionary,  "Agrariae  Leges,"  "Equites"   (19). 

Smith,  Dictionary,  "Servus,  22"   (the  position  of  slaves)    (19). 

Plutarch,  "Tiberius  Gracchus,"  "Gaius  Gracchus"  (26). 

JThe  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

THE   LEADERSHIP   OF   MAEIUS  AND   SULLA 
I.     THE  KISE  OF  MARIUS 

The  Rule  of  the  Restoration. — The  Gracchi  had  failed. 
The  senate  and  the  aristocracy  were  too  strongly  intrenched 
to  be  overthrown  by  the  tribunes,  even  though  supported  by  the 
popular  assembly.  Hence  with  the  death  of  these  reformers 
the  senate  was  restored  to  its  previous  position  as  the  chief 
ruling  body  of  the  state.  The  government  became  more  cor- 
rupt than  ever  before.  The  senators  ruled  to  enrich  themselves, 
while  the  real  interests  of  the  people  were  forgotten.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  people  had  no  capable  leaders,  and  their  cause 
for  a  time  seemed  lost.  It  is  true  that  the  people  had  learned 
something  from  the  revolutionary  attempts  of  the  Gracchi. 
They  had  learned  that  they  could  pass  laws,  even  without  the 
approval  of  the  senate;  and  that  they  could  obstruct,  if  they 
could  not  overthrow,  the  policy  of  the  nobles.  The  next  issues 
between  the  people  and  the  aristocracy  were  upon  questions 
not  of  domestic,  but  of  foreign  policy.  But  unfortunately, 
when  questions  of  war  became  mixed  up  with  questions  of  poli- 
tics, it  came  to  pass  that  both  parties  were  led  to  seek  the  sup- 
port of  the  army. 

The  War  with  Jugurtha  (111-105  B.  c.). — It  was  a  border 
war  in  Africa  that  gave  the  people  their  first  opportunity  to 
interfere  with  the  foreign  policy  of  the  senate.  The  kingdom 
of  Numidia  was  an  ally  of  "Rome.  It  was  now  disturbed  by  the 
attempt  of  ;i  usurper,  named  Jugur'tha,  to  get  control  of  the 
kingdom.  The  senators  undertook  to  settle  this  question;  but 

364 


MARIUS    AND    SULLA 


365 


they  were  evidently  more  influenced  by  Jugurtha's  gold  than 
by  any  sense  of  justice.    Jugurtha  bought  the  Roman  commis- 
sioners sent  to  Africa  to  investigate  the  condition  of  affairs. 
He  then  bought  the  consul  sent  by  the  senate  to  conduct  the 
war  against  him;  and  when  he  was  summoned  to  Rome  to 
testify  against  the  guilty  parties,  he  bribed  a  tribune  to  veto 
the  proceeding.     The .  indignation  of  the  people  became  so 
great  that  the  senate  was  forced  to  send  an  able  commander, 
the  consul  Csecil'ius  Metel'lus,  to  conduct  the  war  in  Africa. 
But  as  the  people  became  conscious  of  their  power,  they  deter- 
mined to  join  issue  with  the  senate  upon  the  appointment  of 
a  new  commander.    Metellus  was  an  aristocrat;  and  when  his 
term  of  office  had  expired 
the  people  elected  as  con- 
sul his  lieutenant,  Gains 
Ma'riua,  a  man  of  humble 
origin,  but_an  able  sol- 
^dier_^Iarius    was    as- 
signed to  the  command; 
he  soon  defeated  Jugur- 
tha,   brought    him    in 
chains  to  Rome,  and  be- 
came the  people's  hero. 

War  with  the  Cimbri 
and  Teutones  (113-101 
B.C.).  —  Italy  was  now 
threatened  by  a  barbarian 
invasion,  which  called  to 
mind  the  terrible  days  when  the  Gauls  had  invaded  Italy  and 
destroyed  Rome.  The  present  invaders  were  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones,  from  the  borders  of  Germany.  These  fierce  people 
had  pushed  down  into  southern  Gaul  and  had  overrun  the  new 
province  o£  Narbonensis  (established  120  B.  c.).  Already  the 
Roman  armies  had  been  defeated;  and  in  one  battle,  at  Arausio 
(107  B.  c.),  sixty  thousand  Romans  are  said  to  have  perished. 


SEAT  OF  THE  CIMBRIC  WAR 


366 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


The  people  were  inclined  to  believe  that  these  misfortunes  were 
due  to  aristocratic  mismanagement;  and  hence  they  called  upon 
Marius  to  save  Rome  from  the  impending  danger.  Marius  was 
repeatedly  elected  to  the  consulship,  and  was  kept  in  command 
of  the  army  until  he  had  destroyed  the  barbarians.  He  gained 
one  great  victory  over  the  Teutones  at  Aquas  Sextiae  in  south- 
ern Gaul  (102  B.  c.);  and  ano'ther  over,  the  Cimbri  at  Vercellae 
in  northern  Italy  (101  B.  c.).  Marius  was  now  saluted  as  the 
"  savior  of  Rome,"  and  received  a  magnificent  triumph. 

Marius  and  the  Popular  Party. — On  account  of  his  humble 
origin  Marius  wasby  nature  in  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  the 

people.  During  his  mili- 
Tary  career,  he  had  al- 
ready broken  down  the 
class  distinctions  in  the 
army,  and  had  placed 
the  rich  and  the  poor,  the 
Romans  and  the  Italians, 
side  by  side  in  the  ranks. 
The  popular  leadcrsjigw 
sought,  fho  support  ^of 
his_great  name  and  his 
military  prestige^in  their 
war  against  the  senate. 
The  chief  leaders  of  the 
popular  party,  since  the 
death  of  the  Gracchi, 
were  Saturnisms  and 
Glaujeia— men  of  no  great 
political  ability.  Marius  now  joined  these  leaders,  and  was 
again  elected  to  the  consulship — the  sixth  time  he  had  held 
that  office.  Saturninus  was  elected  tribune  and  proposed  a  new 
set  of  laws:  (1)  to  reduce  the  price  of  grain;  (2)  to  distribute 
the  land  in  Transalpine  Gaul  among  the  poor  citizens  and  the 
Italians;  and  (3)  to  open  colonies  in  the  provinces  for  the  veter- 


MARIUS  (So-called) 


MARIUS    AND    SULLA  367 

.ans  of  Marius.  These  laws  were  passed  in  spite  of  the  violent 
opposition  of  the  senate;  and  the  cause  of  the  people  for  the 
moment  seemed  victorious.  Saturninus  then  proposed  his  own 
reelection  as  tribune,  and  attempted  to  overawe  the  assembly  by 
an  armed  force.  A  riot  followed;  and  the  senate  called  upon 
Marius,  as  consul,  to  put  down  the  insurrection  and  save  the 
republic.  He  reluctantly  obeyed,  and  in  the  ensuing  conflict 
his  colleagues  Saturninus  and  Glaucia  were  killed.  Marius 
himself  showed  no  capacity  as  a  party  leader.  He  fell  into  dis- 
repute and  retired  from  Rome.  The  senate  again  assumed  the 
reins  of  government;  and  this  first  attempt  to  support  the 
people's  cause  by  the  aid  of  a  military  commander  proved  a 
failure. 

II.     THE  EIVALRY  OF  MARIUS  AND  SULLA 

The  Social  War,  and  the  Incorporation  of  Italy  (90-88 
B.  c.). — For  a  brief  time  after  the  retirement  of  Marius,  the 
politics  of  the  capital  were  overshadowed  by  a  new  danger 
which  threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  Roman  state.  This 
was  the  revolt  of  the  Italian  allies.  The  Italians  had  long  been 
clamoring  for  the  rights  of  citizenship.  Their  cause  was  first 
espoused  by  a  well-meaning  but  impracticable  man,  the  tribune 
M.  Livius  Drusus  (the  son  of  the  Drusus  who  had  opposed 
Gaius  Gracchus).  But  the  failure  of  Drusus  to  accomplish 
anything  in  their  favor  drove  them  into  open  war.  This  war 
of  the  allies  (socii)  is  known  as  the  "  Social  war."  Its  purpose 
was  to  found  a  new  Italian  state,  "  Italica,"  with  its  capital  at 
Corfin'ium.  The  parties  at  Rome  ceased  from  their  quarreling 
and  united  to  preserve  the  republic.  Even  Marius  returned  to 
serve  as  a  legate  in  the  Roman  army.  A  hundred  thousand 
men  took  the  field  against  an  equal  number  raised  by  the  allies. 
In  the  first  year  the  war  was  unfavorable  to  Rome.  Ifi  the 
second  year  (89  B.  c.)  new  preparations  were  made  and  new 
commanders  were  appointed.  Marius,  on  account  of  his  age, 


THE    KOMAN    WORLD 


was  not  continued  in  his  command;  while  L.  Cornelius  Sulla, 
who  was  once  a  subordinate  of  Marius,  was  made  chief  com- 
mander in  Campania.  Tl^jrcea^-eredit  of  bringing  thiswar 


to  a  close  was  due  to  Sulla  and  another  commander  named 
Ppmpe'ms  Strabo.  The  first  Italian  capital,  Corfinium,  was 
taken  by  Pompeius;  and  the  second  capital,  Bovianum,  was 


ITAL.Y 

Before  the  Social  War 
B.C.  90 

(AFTKK  BELOCH) 
1          |  Ager  Romania 
•       11  Latin  Culoniti 


captured  by  Sulla  (88  B.  c.).  The  Social  war  was  thus  ended; 
but  it  had  been  a  great  affliction  to  Italy.  It  is  roughly  esti- 
mated that  three  hundred  thousand  men,  Romans  and  Italians, 
lost  their  lives  in  this  struggle. 

Although  Rome  was  victorious  in  the  field,  the  Italians  ob- 
tained what  they  had  demanded  before  the  war  br^iii.  ih;ii  is. 
the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship.  The  Romans  granted  the 


MARIUS   AND   SULLA 


360 


franchise  (1)  to  all  Latins  and  Italians  who  had  remained  loyal 
during  the  war  (lex  lulia,  90  B.  c.);  and  (2)  to  every  Italian 
who  should  be  enrolled  by  the  prater  within  sixty  days  of  the 
passage  of  the  law  (lex  Plautia  Papiria,  89  B.  c.).  Every  per- 
son to  whom  these  provisions  applied  was  now  a  Roman  citizen. 
The  policy  of  incorporation,  which  had  been  discontinued  for 
so  long  a  time,  was  thus  revived.  The  greater  part  of  Italy  was 
joined  to  the  ager  Romanus;  and  Italy  and  Home  became  prac- 
tically one  nation. 

The  Elevation  of  Sulla. — One  important  result  of  the  Social 
war  was  to  bring  Sulla  into  prominence,  and  thus  to  give  to  the 
aristocratic  party  a  military  leader — a 
leader  perhaps  quite  equal  to  Marius  as 

a  Soldier  n     pnrl    far   anpprinr   fr>   Viim    a<;    a 

politician.  War  was  not  a  new  occu- 
pation for  Sulla.  In  the  campaign 
against  Jugurtha  he  had  served  as  a 
lieutenant  of  Marius.  In  the  Cimbric 
war  he  had  displayed  great  courage  and 
ability.  And  now  he  had  become  the 
most  conspicuous  commander  in  the 
Italian  war.  As  a  result  of  his  bril- 
liant exploits,  he  was  elected  to  the  con- 
sulship. The  senate  also  recognized 
him  as  the  ablest  general  of  the  time, 
when  it  now  appointed  him  to  conduct 
a  war  in  the  East  against  the  great 
enemy  of  Rome,  Mithrida'tes,  king  of 
Pontus,  who  was  now  encroaching  upon  the  Roman  territory 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 

Attempt  of  Marius  to  displace  Sulla ;  the  Sulpician  Laws. — 
Marius  had  watched  with  envy  the  growing  farnp  r>f  ftn11a  dur- 
rnpr  and  after  fhp  iSop1'a1  war  His  whole  nature  was  now  in- 
flamed with  revenge  and  the  desire  to  displace  and  destroy 
his  hated  rival.  To  regain  his  influence  with  the  people,  he 


SULLA  (So-called) 


370  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

reentered  pom^syya^joig^i^  himself  to  the  popular  leader, 
the  tribune  P.NSulpicius  Rufusr.  Sulla  had  scarcely  left  Rome, 
when  Marius  and  Sulpicius  embodied  their  scheme  in  the  so- 
called  "  Sulpician  laws."  Besides  some  measures  intended  to 
humor  the  people  and  to  weaken  the  senate,  these  laws  con- 
tained a  provision  giving  to  Marius  instead  of  Sulla  the  com- 
mand of  the  Mithridatic  war.  This  last  law  reversed  the  de- 
cree of  the  senate  which  had  already  given  the  command  to 
Sulla.  The__SuIpickiUawD  thua  made  a  direst  issuaj^ween 

the  people  and  th^  «^npte-   a^rl   fhia  pnlifinal   igqnp.hpnarnp  also 

a  personal  issue  between  Marius  and  Sulla.  The  laws  were 
passed  with  the  usual  riotous  proceedings;  and  two  messengers 
were  sent  to  Sulla  with  the  order  that  he  turn  over  his  com- 
mand to  Marius. 

Sulla's  Occupation  of  Rome  and  Departure  for  the  East. — 
Sulla  had  not  yet  left  Italy.  His  legions  were  still  encamped 
in  Campania.  He  appealed  to  them  to  support  the  honor  and 
authority  of  their  commander.  They  responded  to  his  appeal, 
and  Sulla  at  the  head  of  his  troops  marched  to  Rome.  '  For 
the  first  time  the  Roman  legions  fought  in  the  streets  of  the 
capital,  and  a  question  of  politics  was  settled  by  the  army. 
Marius  and  Sulpicius  were  driven  from  the  city,  and  Sulla  for 
the  time  was  supreme.  He  called  together  the  senate,  and 
caused  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party  to  be  declared  outlaws. 
He  then  annulled  the  laws  passed  by  Sulpicuis,  and  gave  the 
senate  the  power  hereafter  to  approve  or  reject  all  laws  before 
they  should  be  submitted  to  the  people.  With  the  army  at  his 
back  Sulla  could  do  what  he  pleased.  When  he  had  placed  the 
government  securely  in  the  hands  of  the  senate,  as  he  thought, 
he  left  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  the  war  against 
Mithridates  in  the  East, 

The  Marian  Massacres;  China's  Despotic  Rule. — During 
the  absence  of  Sulla  Rome  passed  through  a  reign  of  terror. 
The  popular  party,  now  under  the  leadership  of  L.  Cornelius 
Cinna,  sought  to  regain  control  of  the  government.  But  in  an 


MARIUS    AND   SULLA  371 

armed  conflict,  in  which  ten  thousand  citizens  are  said  to  have 
lost  their  lives,  Cinna  was  defeated  and  driven  from  the  city. 
Cinna  then,  following  the  example  of  his  enemy  Sulla,  ap- 
pealed to  the  army  for  support.  At  the  same  time  Marius,  who 
had  fled  to  Africa,  returned  with  a  body  of  Numidian  cavalry. 
Uniting  their  forces,  Marius  and  Cinna  marched  to  Rome  and 
took  possession  of  the  city.  Then  began  that  scene  of  carnage 
which  is  known  as  the  "  Marian  massacres/'  in  which  the  ene- 
mies of  Marius  were  everywhere  cut  down  without  mercy.  The 
man  who  had  once  been  saluted  as  the  "  savior  of  Rome  "  for- 
ever blackened  his  name  by  the  most  revolting  deeds  of  a 
despot.  This  spasm  of  slaughter  lasted  for  five  days.  Marius 
and  Cinna  then  declared  themselves  to  be  consuls.  But  Marius 
held  this,  his  seventh  consulship,  only  a  brief  time,  when  he 
died — the  "  horror  of  Rome."  Cinna  continued  to  rule  with 
absolute  power.  He  declared  himself  consul  each  year,  and 
named  his  own  colleague.  His  incapacity  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  during  the  three  years  of  his  supremacy  he  did  nothing  to 
strengthen  the  people's  cause,  of  which  he  professed  to  be  the 
leader.  At  last  hearing  that  Sulla  was  about  to  return  from 
the  East,  he  led  an  army  to  prevent  his  landing  in  Italy;  but 
he  was  killed  in  a  mutiny  of  his  own  soldiers. 

III.     THE  TRIUMPH  AND  DICTATORSHIP  OF  SULLA 

Sulla  and  the  First  Mithridatic  War  (88-84  B.  c.).— While 
Rome  was  thus  suffering  from  the  massacres  of  Marius  and  the 
despotic  rule  of  Cinna,  Sulla  was  gathering  fresh  glories  in  the 
East.  When  he  landed  in  Gre<°rf  h^f^imd  th"  "aptem  prov- 
inces in  a  wretched__state.  Mithridates,  the  king  of  Pontus 
(see  map,  p.  342),  had  extended  his  power  over  a  large  part 
of  Asia  Minor.  He  had  overrun  the  Roman  province  of  Asia. 
He  had  induced  the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast,  which  had  been 
brought  under  the  Roman  power,  to  revolt  and  join  his  cause. 
He  had  massacred  over  eighty  thousand  Italians  living  on  the 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Asiatic  coast.  He  had  also  sent  his  armies  into  Macedonia  and 
Greece,  and  many  of  the  cities  there,  including  Athens,  had  de- 
clared in  his  favor.  The  Roman  power  in  the  East  seemed 
well-nigh  broken.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Sulla  showed  his 
greatest  ability  as  a  soldier.  He  drove  back  the  armies  of 
Mithridates,  besieged  Athens,  and  reduced  it.  He  destroyed  an 
army  at  Chaeronea  (86 
B.  c. ;  see  map,  p.  334), 
and  another  at  Orchom- 
enus  (85  B.  c.).  Within 
four  years  he  reestab- 
lished the  Eoman  power, 

and     compelled     Mithri- 

LOIN  OF  ATHENS 
dates  to  sign  a  treaty  of 

peace.     He  then  returned  to  Italy  to  find  his  own  party  over- 
thrown and  himself  an  outlaw. 

Sulla's  War  with  the  Marian  Party. — Sulla  landed  in  Italy 
(83  B.  ^QjEJth  a  viH^rifmr  nrmy  of  fnTty  thniTiinrir1  men.  He 
had  restored  the  power  of  Rome  against  her  enemies  abroad; 
he  now  set  to  work  to  restore  her  authority  against  her  enemies 
at  home.  He  looked  upon  the"pDpa-lar  .party  as  a  revolutionary 
faction,  ruling  with  no  sanction  of  law  or  justice.  Its  leaders 
since  the  death  of  Cinna  were  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo,  the  younger 
Marius,  and  Q.  Sertorius.  The  landing  of  Sulla  in  Italy  with- 
out disbanding  his  army  was  the  signal  for  civil  war.  Southern 
Italy  declared  in  his  favor,  and  many  prominent  men  looked 
to  him  as  the  deliverer  of  Rome.  The  choicest  of  his  new 
allies  was  the  son  of  Pompeius  Strabo,  then  a  young  man  of 
twenty-three,  but  whose  future  fame,  as  Pompey  the  Great,  was 
destined  to  equal  that  of  Sulla  himself.  Sulla  marched  to 
Campania  and  routed  the  forces  of  one  consul,  while  troops  of 
the  other  consul  deserted  to  him  in  a  body.  He  then  attacked 
tho  young  Marius  in  Latium,  defeated  him,  and  shut  him  up 
in  the  town  <>|  l)i;i>neste(see  map,  p.  302).  Northern  Italy  was 
at  the  same  time  held  in  check  by  Pompey.  A  desperate  bat- 


MARIUS   AND    SULLA  373 

tie  was  fought  at  Clusium,  in  Etruriu  (scu  map,  p.  303),  in 
which  Sulla  and  Pompey  defeated  the  army  of  Carbo.  At  last 
an  army  of  Samnites  which  had  joined  the  Marian  cause  was 
cut  to  pieces  at  the  Colline  gate  (see  map,  p.  282)  under  tin- 
very  walls  of  Rome.  Sulla  showed  what  might  be  expected  of 
him  when  he  ordered  six  thousand  Samnite  prisoners  to  be  mas- 
sacred in  cold  blood. 

The  Sullan  Proscriptions. — With  Italy  at  his  feet  and  a  vic- 
torious army  at  his  ha^k,  Sulla,  the  champion  of  the  senate. 
wag  now  the  supreme  ruler  of  Rome.  Before  entering  upon 
the  work  of  reconstructing  the  government,  he  determined  first 
of  all  to  complete  the  work  of  destroying  his  enemies.  It  is 
sometimes  said  that  Sulla  was  not  a  man  of  vindictive  nature. 
Let  us  see  what  he  did.  He  first  outlawed  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary officers  who  had  taken  part  in  the  revolution  against  him, 
and  offered  a  reward  of  two  talents  (about  $2,500)  to  the  mur- 
derer of  any  of  these  men.  He  then  posted  a  list  (proscriptio) 
containing  the  names  of  those  citizens  whom  he  wished  to  have 
killed.  He  placed  eighty  names  on  the  first  list,  two  hundred 
and  twenty  more  on  the  second,  as  many  more  on  the  third,  and 
so  on  until  nearly  five  thousand  citizens  had  been  put  to  death 
in  Rome.  If  the  proscriptions  of  Sulla  were  not  inspired  by 
the  mad  fury  of  revenge  which  led  to  the  Marian  massacres, 
they  were  yet  prompted  by  the  cool  and  merciless  policy  of  a 
tyrant. 

The  Sullan  Constitution. — When  Sulla  had  destroyed  his 
enemies,  not  only  in  Rome  but  throughout  Italy,  he  turned  to 
the  work  of  reconstructing  the  government  in  the  interests  of 
the  senate  and  aristocracy.  Not  relying  upon  the  tribune's 
power  which  had  been  used  by  the  Gracchi,  nor  upon  the  con- 
sular power  which  Marius  had  repeatedly  held,  he  had  himself 
appointed  "  perpetual  dictator."  This  made  him  the  absolute 
ruler  of  the  state.  As  a  support  to  his  power  he  planted  his 
veterans  in  military  colonies  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  where 
they  could  be  called  upon  in  case  of  emerg'ency.  He  then 


374  THE   ROMAN    WORLD 

proceeded  to  frame  his  new  constitution,  the  most  important 
provisions  of  which  were  the  following: 

(1)  He  restored  the  senate  to  its  previous  position  as  the 
chief  ruling  body  of  the  state,  granting  to  it  the  right  to  initi- 
ate all  legislation;  and  he  united  the  senatorial  and  equestrian 
orders  by  appointing  many  equites  to  the  senate. 

(2)  He  weakened  the  power  of  the  people  by  taking  away 
from  the  comitia  tributa  the  power  of  making  laws,  trans- 
ferring this  power  to  the  comitia  ccnturiata,  which  was  con- 
trolled by  wealth,  but  which  could  not  pass  any  law  without 
the  previous  approval  of  .the  senate. 

(3)  He  reduced  the  power  of  the  tribune  to  the  mere  right 
of  "intercession,"  or  the  protection  of  a  citizen  from  official 
injustice,  forbidding  the  tribune  from  proposing  laws,  and  pro- 
viding that  no  tribune  could  afterward  be  elected  to  any  curule 
office. 

(4)  He  reenacted  the  old  law  of  succession  to  office,  whereby 
no  person  could  hold  the  same  office  a  second  time  within  a 
period  of  ten  years. 

(5)  He  restricted  the  power  of  the  consul  to  matters  of  civil 
administration,  so  that  no  consul  could  command  the  army 
until  the  expiration  of  his  term. 

(6)  He  organized  a  system  of  permanent  criminal  courts 
(qucestiones  perpetnce),  and  restored  the  jury  list  to  the  senate, 
as  it  had  been  before  the  days  of  the  Gracchi. 

The  general  tendency  of  Sulla's  legislation  was  to  annul  all 
the  principal  changes  which  had  grown  out  of  the  revolutionary 
attempts  of  the  popular  party  and  its  leaders,  and  thus  to  rees- 
tablish the  government  upon  its  old  aristocratic  basis. 

After  a  reign  of  three  years  Sulla  resigned  his  office  as 
dictator.  He  retired  to  his  country  home  on  the  bay  of  Naples, 
and  died  in  a  few  months,  before  he  could  know  of  the  fate  of 
his  constitution.  Upon  his  monument  wen1  inscribed  the 
words:  "  No  friend  ever  did  him  a  kindness,  and  no  enemy  a 
wrong,  without  Being  fully  repaid." 


POMI'KY    AM)    (  .KSAR 


SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  RISE  OF  MARIUS. — The  Rule  of  the  Restoration. — The 
War    with    ,Jugurthu.--\Y;u-    with    the    Ciinlu-i    and    Teutones. — 
M;irius  ;ii, (I    thr   Popular  1'arty. 

II.  THE    RIVALRY   OF    MARIUS   AND   SULLA. — The    Social    \\-.\v, 
and     tlu>     Incorporation    of     Italy. — The    Elevation     of     Sulla. — 
Attempt   of    Marius    to    Displace    Sulla;    the    Sulpician    Laws. — 
Sulla's  Occupation  of  Rome  and  Departure  for  the  East. — The 
Marian  Massacres;   Cinna's  Despotic  Rule. 

III.  THE   THUMIMI    AND    DICTATORSHIP   OF   SULLA. — Sulla    a  inl- 
ine First  Mitln  idatic  War.— Sulla's  War  with  the  Marian  Party.— 
The  Sullan  Proscriptions. — The  Sullan  Constitution. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Pelham,  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  2,  "From  the  Gracchi  to  Sulla"  (18).1 
How  and  Leigh,  Ch.  39,  "The  Social  War";  Ch.  44,  "The  Sullan 

Constitution"   (18). 

Merivale,  Gen.  Hist.,  Ch.  32,  "Rivalry  of  Marius  and  Sulla"  (18). 
Taylor,  Ch.  11,  "China  and  Sulla"  (22). 
Beesly,  Ch.  4,  "War  with  Jugurtha";  Ch.  15,  "Sulla's  Reactionary 

Measures"   (18). 

Schuckburgh,  Ch.  38,  "Mithridates  in  Asia  and  Greece"   (18). 
Mommsen,  Vol.  III.,  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  10,  "The  Sullan  Constitution"; 

pp.  458-470  (character  of  Sulla)    (18). 

-   (Abridged),  Ch.  22,  "Marius  as  a  Revolutionist"   (18). 
Ihne,  History,  Vol.  V.,  Bk.  VII.,  Ch.  8,  "The  Jugurthine  War"; 

Ch.  14,  "The  Social  War"  (18). 
Freeman,  Essay  on  "Sulla"  (3). 
Plutarch,  "Marius,"  "Sulla"  (26). 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

THE  GROWTH  OF  IMPERIALISM— POMPEY  AND  CJESAR 

I.     THE  RISE  OF  POMPEY  AND  CRASSUS 


Y 


The  Drift  of  Roman  Politics. — From  what  we  have  seen  of 
the  political  conflicts  going  on  at  Rome  since  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  Gracchi,  we  might  infer  that  no  important  re- 
sults had  heen  accomplished.  The  constitution  of  Sulla  was 

1The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 22 


376  THE   ROMAN    WORLD 

evidently  intended  to  put  the  government  back  where  it  was 
before  the  revolution  began.  The  efforts  of  the  people  to 
overthrow  the  power  of  the  senate  and  the  aristocracy  seem  to 
have  come  to  nothing.  The  chiefs  of  the  popular  party  had 
shown  no  great  capacity  for  leadership,  and  had  often  degen- 
erated into  mere  demagogues.  But  in  spite  of  all  these 
discouragements,  there  were  two  facts  which  seemed  to  show 
the  drift  of  Roman  politics.  In  the  first  place,  there  had  been 
a  growing  tendencvin  the  direction  of  the  nTuvman  power. 
This  is  shown  in  the  tribunate  of  the  Gracchi,  in  the  successive 
consulships  of  Marius,  in  the  absolute  rule  of  Cinna,  and  in  the 
dictatorship  of  Sulla.  In  other  words,  the  Eoman  state  was 
drifting  toward  monarchy.  In  the  second  place,  the  deter- 
mined spirit  of  the  people  showed^  that  theone-manjjower 
could  not  be  permanently  established  upon  an  aristocratic  basis 
like  that  of  &ulla.  The  Roman  people  would  evidently  be 
satisfiedonly^with  a  form  of  monarchy  or  imperialism  which 
recognized  the  welfare  of  the  whole  Eoman  state.  We  are  now 
to  trace  how  such  a  form  of  imperialism  came  to  be  established. 

The  Three  Revolts:  Lepidus,  Sertorius,  Spartacus. — Sulla 
had  hardly  passed  away  when  signs  of  discontent  everywhere 
appeared.  The  evidence  of  this  discontent  is  seen  in  three  im- 
portant revolts  which  took  place  at  this  time — the  revolt  of 
Lep'idus,  the  rebellion  of  Sertorius,  and  the  insurrection  led  by 
Spar'tacus. 

(1)  The  first  attempt  to  oppose  the  new  constitution  was 
made  by  the  consul  Lepidus,  a  vain  and  petulant  man  who 
aspired  to  be  chief  of  the  popular  party,  but  who  proved  to  be 
an  incompetent  leader,  like  many  of  his  predecessors.  He  pro- 
posed to  restore  the  tribunate,  and  to  overthrow  the  whole  Sul- 
lan  regime.  Failing  in  this,  he  raised  an  armed  force,  as  Sulla 
and  Cinna  had  done  before  him,  to  carry  out  his  views.  The 
senate  placed  in  command  of  the  army  Pompey,  one  of  Sulla's 
lieutenants.  Pompey  defeated  Lepidus;  and  this  feeble  at- 
tempt at  revolution  failed  (77  B.  o.). 


POMPEY    AND    CVESAlt  377 

(2)  A  more  serious  attempt  at  revolution  was  made  by 
Sertorius,  a  popular  leader  who  had  escaped  to  Spain  during 
the  Sullan  proscriptions.     Here  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
provincials,  and  attempted  to  establish  in  Spain  an  independ- 
ent republic.    This  rebellion  had  been  begun  before  the  death 
of  Sulla ;  it  continued  for  some  years  afterward,  and  presented 
a  serious  problem  for  the  senate.    Sertorius  was  himself  a  man 
of  noble  character,  and  also  a  very  able  soldier.    After  he  had 
defeated  three  Roman  generals,  Pompey  was  appointed  procon- 
sul, and  was  sent  with  a  large  army  to  put  dowfi  this  rebellion. 
The  war  under  Pompey  was  successfully  carried  on ;  but  it  was 
only  after  Sertorius  had  been  treacherously  slain  by  one  of  his 
own  followers  that  the  province  was  finally  pacified  (72  B.  c.). 

(3)  Before  the  war  in  Spain  was  ended,  the  senate  was  called 
upon  to  meet  a  still  more  formidable  danger  in  Italy.    This 
was  the  revolt  of  the  gladiators,  under  their  renowned  leader 
Spartacus.    The  gladiators 

were  captives  trained  to 
fight  one  another  in  the 
arena  for  the  amusement  of 
the  Roman  populace.  Sev- 
enty of  these  desperate  men 
escaped  from  the  training 

school  at  Capua,  and  gath- 

ROMAN  GLADIATORS 
ered  about  them  a  motley 

horde  of  a  hundred  thousand  slaves  and  outlaws.  They  defeated 
four  Roman  armies,  and  threatened  to  devastate  the  whole  of 
Italy.  In  the  absence  of  Pompey  the  senate  selected  Crassus— 
a  wealthy  aristocrat  who  had  served  as  a  soldier  under  Sulla — 
to  put  down  this  fearful  insurrection.  Spartacus  was  finally 
defeated  (71  B.  c.).  A  small  remnant  of  his  band  fled  to  the 
north  and  fell  in  with  Pompey  on  his  return  from  Spain,  and 
was  destroyed.  By  this  stroke  of  luck  Pompey  had  the  assur- 
ance to  claim  that,  in  addition  to  closing  the  war  with  Spain, 
he  had  also  finished  the  war  with  the  gladiators. 


378 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


The  Consulship  of  Pompey  and  Crassus  (70  B.C.). — The 
senate  had  thus  succeeded  in  maintaining  its  authority  and 
putting  down  three  attempts  at  revolution,  with  the  aid 

of  Pompey  and  Crassus. 
These  generals  now 
claimed  the  consulship 
as  a  reward  for  their 
service.  But  according 
to  the  Sullan  laws  they 
were  not  yet  eligible  to 
this  office;  and  the  senate 
was  committed  to  the 
Sullan  regime.  Finding 
no  hope  of  support  from 
the  senate,  the  two  gen- 
erals turned  to  the  pop- 
ular party.  In  return 
for  the  consulship  they 
agreed  to  carry  out  the 
schemes  of  this  party  and 
annul  the  laws  of  Sulla. 
As  a  result  of  this  1  jar- 
gain  Pompey  and  Crassus  joined  hands,  broke  with  the  sci 
ate,  became  supporters  of  the  democratic  cause,  and  were 
elected  to  the  consulship. 

Overthrow  of  the  Sullan  Constitution. — True  to  their 
agreement,  Pompey  and  Crassus  proceeded,  with  the  support 
of  the  people,  to  overthrow  the  constitution  which  Sulla  ex- 
pected would  be  lasting.  The  old  power  was  given  back  to  the 
tribunes.  The  legislative  power  was  restored  to  the  assembly, 
which  now  could  pass  laws  without  the  approval  of  the  senate. 
The  exclusive  right  to  furnish  jurors  in  criminal  cases  was 
taken  away  from  the  senate.  Also  the  power  of  tin-  censors  to 
revise  the  list  of  the  senators,  which  Sulla  had  abolished,  was 
restored;  and  as  a  result  of  thi>.  si \ty-f our  senators  were  e\- 


HEAD  OF  THE  STATUE  OF  POMPEY 
(So-called) 


POMPEY   AND   C^SAR  379 

pelled  from  the  senate.  By  these  measures  the  Sullan  regime 
was  j>ruct  it-ally  dcslrovnl.  and  lln1  supremacy  of  the  senate 
taken  away.  This  was,  in  fact,  the  most  decisive  victory  won 
by  the  popular  party  since  the  beginning  of  the  revolution.  It 
was  also  achieved  without  an  armed  conflict,  simply  by  winning 
to  the  democratic  cause  the  support  of  the  two  successful 
generals. 

The  Military  Supremacy  of  Pompey, — Since  the  death  of 
Sulla,  the  senators  had  taken  comparatively  little  interest  in 
the  eastern  provinces  except  as  a  source  of  wealth  to  them- 
selves and  to  their  supporters.  -As  a  result  of  this  weak  policy, 
the  East  was  falling  into  a  condition  nearly  as  wretched  as'  its 
condition  before  the  campaigns  of  Sulla.  The  seas  were  in- 
fested with  pirates,  who  cut  off  the  grain  supplies  from  Egypt; 
and  the  king  of  Pontus  was  still  a  menace  to  the  Roman 
provinces.  The  people  now  determined  to  take  into  their  own 
hands  the  management  of  eastern  affairs.  By  two  laws  they 
raised  their  new  leader,  Pompey,  to  a  position  never  before  held 
by  a  Roman  citizen — except  perhaps  by  Sulla. 

(1)  The  Gabinian  law  (67  B.  c.).— To  rid  the  sea  of  the 
pirates  (who  made  their  home  in  Cilicia  and  Crete)  a  law  was 
proposed  by  the  tribune  Gabinius,  giving  to  Pompey  for  three 
years  supreme  control  over  the  Mediterranean   Sea  and  its 
coasts  for  fifty  miles  inland.    This  law  was  passed,  and  Pompey 
was  placed  in  command  of  a  large  fleet  and  army.      Within 
ninety  days  he  had  swept  the  seas  and  cleared  the  coasts,  and 
the  Mediterranean  was  once  more  open  to  Roman  commerce. 

(2)  ThtManilian  law  (66  B.  c.). — In  the  next  year  a  law 
was  proposed  by  the  tribune  Manilius  and  supported  by  Rome's 
greatest  orator,  Cicero,  giving  to  Pompey  the  entire  control  of 
the  East  until  the  tedious  and  desultory  war  now  in  progress 
against  Mithridates  should  be  brought  to  an  end.     The  war 
had  recently  been  conducted  by  Lucullus,  a  wealthy  aristo- 
cratic general,  who  was  charged  with  prolonging  the  war  to 
enrich  himself.    Pompey  now  received  the  command.    He  de- 


380 


THE   ROMAN    WORLD 


feated  Mithridates  and  drove  him  out  of  his  kingdom.  He  then 
invaded  Syria  and  took  possession  of  that  country.  He  entered 
Judea,  and  after  a  severe  struggle  succeeded  in  capturing  Jeru- 
salem (63  B.  c.).  All  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
were  brought  under  his  control.  He  organized  the  conquered 
territory  into  new  Roman  provinces,  and  planted,  it  is  said, 
thirty-nine  new  cities.  Pompey  was  now  looked  upon  as  the 
most  successful  of  Roman  generals,  and  worthy  of  the  title 
"  the  Great,"  once  conferred  upon  him  by  Sulla. 

II.    THE  COALITION  OF  POMPEY,  C^SAR,  AND  CRASSUS 

The  Kise  of  Julius  Caesar. — During  the  absence  of  Pompey 
in  the  East  the  politics  of  the  capital  were  in  a  confused  and 

uncertain  state.  The 
senate  was  striving  to 
maintain  its  old  dignity, 
even  though  it  could  not 
exercise  its  old  authority. 
The  popular  party  was 
under  the  professed 
leadership  of  Crassus, 
who  jiad^  JLQ  ajnli tyjis  & 
poJ^tjjQiaiii  and  who  was 
influential  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  his  wealth.  The 
party  had,  in  fact,  won 
what  laurels  it  had 
gained,  through  the  mili- 
tary prestige  of  Pompey. 
But  even  in  the  case  of 

C.KSAR  (Naples)  _  .,  ,    . 

Pompey  it  was  uncertain 

how  much  confidence  could  be  placed  in  ;i  man  who  had  already 
broken  with  the  senate.  In  the  mean^irtfe,  a  new  leader  was 
coming  to  the  front — a  leader  who  was  destined  to  become  the 


l"    AND    C^ESAK  381 

• 
greatest  statesman  of  Rome,  and  to  perform  a  work  which  no 

one  else  was  able  to  accomplish.  This  man  was  Julius-Caesar. 
He  was  ;i  nephew  of  Marius  and  the  son-in-law  of  Cinna. 
He  was,  therefore,  from  the  first  well  disposed  toward  the 
popular  rause.  He  had  favored  the  restoration  of  the  tribu- 
nate, and  had  supported  the  Manilian  law.  He  had  also  tried 
to  procure  the  franchise  for  the  Latin  colonies  beyond  the  Po; 
and  he  had,  while  curule  aedile,  won  the  plaudits  of  the  popu- 
lace by  the  splendor  of  his  games.  Caesar  saw  that  the  people's 
cause  was  in  the  ascendency;  and  he  aspired  to  become  its 
leader,  and  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  state. 
This  was  a  noble  ambition  on  the  part  of  Caesar — to  identify 
his  own  success  with  that  of  his  fellow-citizens.  But  his  ambi- 
tion was  checked  for  a  brief  time  by  the  suspicion  that  he  was 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cat'iline — a  movement  which 
aroused  in  the  minds  of  all  good  citizens  the  most  intense 
indignation. 

Cicero  and  the  Catilinian  Conspiracy. — Catiline  was  a  man 
of  the  stripe  of  Cinna.  He  professed  to  represent  the  cause  of 
the  people.  He  was  like  Cinna  in  not  caring  so  much  for  the 
real  interests  of  the  people  as  for  his  own  aggrandizement,  and 
also  in  being  perfectly  unscrupulous  as  to  the  methods  by  which 
he  attained  his  ends.  That  he  was  at  first  looked  upon  as  a 
legitimate  party  leader  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  he  was 
supported  for  the  consulship  by  Caesar  and  Crassus.  But  he 
proved  to  be  a  demagogue  and  a  desperado.  He  came  to  be 
feared  by  all  the  best  citizens  of  Rome.  He  was  hence  de- 
feated at  the  elections  by  the  senatorial  party,  under  the  lead 
of  Cicero.  After  a  second  failure  to  obtain  the  consulship, 
Catiline's  true  character  was  revealed.  He  adopted  the  desper- 
ate methods  which  had  proved  temporarily  successful  in  the 
days  of  Marius  and  Cinna.  He  determined  to  raise  an  army 
from  all  the  lawless  and  discontented  classes  of  Italy,  to  march 
upon  Rome,  seize  the  city,  and  destroy  his  enemies.  This 
nefarious  plan  was  discovered  by  Cicero,  who  had  been  elected 


382 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


consul.  Catiline's  army  was  defeated  in  Etruria.  Catiline 
himself  was  killed  in  battle,  and  five  of  his  fellow-conspirators 
were  condemned  to  death  by  the  senate;  and  Cicero  put  the 

judgment  into  execution 
(62  B.  c.).  Cicero  had 
already  done  good  serv- 
ice to  the  republic  by 
his  impeachment  o  f 
Verres,  the  corrupt  gov- 
ernor of  Sicily;  and 
now  he  was  hailed  as 
the  "Father  of  his 
Country."  The  senate  re- 
garded the  suppression 
of  the  conspiracy  as  an 
aristocratic  victory;  and 
the  popular  leaders,  al- 
though denying  all  con- 
nection with  the  conspir- 
acy, fell  into  disrepute. 
Formation  of  the  "First  Triumvirate"  (60  B.C.). — The 
senate  now  supposed  that  the  time  had  come  to  assert  its  own 
authority.  The  only  leaders  of  the  people  who  seemed  strong 
enough  to  oppose  the  senatorial  policy  were  Pompey  and  Caesar. 
The  senate,  therefore,  determined  first  to  humiliate  Pompey, 
and  next  to  embarrass  Caesar.  In  the  first  place,  when  Pompey 
returned  from  his  victories,  he  expected  that  his  arrangements 
in  the  East  would  be  confirmed  by  the  senate,  and  that  his 
veterans  would  be  rewarded  with  grants  of  land.  Tin1  senate 
refused  to  do  either.  In  the  next  place,  when  Caesar  returned 
from  Spain — to  which  province  he  had  been  sent  as  propraetor 
and  where  he  had  won  a  military  reputation — he  wished  to  re- 
ceive a  triumph  and  to  be  elected  to  the  consulship.  The  sen- 
ate decided  that  he  could  not  receive  a  triumph  while  in  the 
city,  and  could  not  be  elected  to  the  consulship  while  "utsid. 


POMPEY    AND   CJESAU  .383 

the  city.  Caesar  accordingly  waived  the  triumph  and  entered 
the  city.  Here  he  found  Pompey  chafing  against  the  senate;  \ 
and  the  two  generals  agreed  to  unite  in  opposing  the  senatorial 
party.  By  its  blundering  policy,  the  senate  had  thus  driven  the 
two  chieftains  into  a  coalition,  to  which  the  wealthy  Crassus; 
was  admitted.  This  coalition  is  usually  called  the  "  First; 
Triumvirate."  It  was  composed  of  the  most  successful  soldier, 
the  most  able  statesman,  and  the  richest  capitalist  of  Rome. 
These  men  united  to  advance  their  own  interests  in  opposition 
to  the  senate.  They  were  also,  to  all  appearances  at  least,  in 
sympathy  with  the  popular  party;  and  their  success  would  no 
doubt  advance  the  cause  of  the  people. 

V  The  Consulship  of  Caesar  (59  B.  c.). — According  to  the 
terms  of  the  agreement  Caesax  was  elected  to  the  consulship. 
On  his  election  Caesar  went  faithfully  to  work  to  fulfill  his 
obligations  to  Pompey,  and  to  pass  laws  to  strengthen  the 
cause  of  the  triumvirs.  (1)  He  secured  a  law  confirming  all  the 
acts  of  Pompey  in  the  East.  (2)  He  had  passed  an  agrarian- 
law  which  not  only  provided  for  the  veterans  of  Pompey,  but  \ 
which  also  gave  estates  in  Campania  to  the  needy  citizens  of 
Rome.  (3)  He  then  obtained  a-  law  remitting  one  third  of  the 
price  which  the  capitalists  had  agreed  to  pay  for  collecting  the 
taxes  in  Asia.  (4)  Finally,  a  bill  was  passed  by  which  he  him- 
self was  assigned  to  the  provinces  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Illyri- 
cum,  to  which  Transalpine  Gaul  was  added.  By  these  laws 
Pompey  was  satisfied;  the  people  were  pleased;  the  capitalists 
were  reconciled;  and  Caesar  himself  was  secured  in  a  military 
command. 

But  before  leaving  for  his  provinces,  Caesar  desired  still  fur- 
ther to  cripple  the  power  of  the  senate,  by  depriving  it  of  its 
chief  leaders.  These  were  Cicero  and  Cato  the  Younger— 
Cicero,  who  had  restored  the  prestige  of  the  senate  by  crushing 
the  Catilinian  conspiracy;  and  Cato,  who  was  the  grandsori 
of  Cato  the  Censor,  and  who  was  now  the  most  conservative 
of  the  senatorial  party,  Cesar's  tool  in  this  work  was  the 


384:  THE    KOMAN    WORLD 

tribune  Clodius,  a  radical  and  unscrupulous  politician,  but  a 
devoted  friend  of  Ca3sar.  Through  his  influence,  Cicero  was 
banished  on  the  charge  of  having  put  to  death  the  Catilinian 
conspirators  without  giving  them  a  regular  trial.  Cato  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Cyprus,  where  he  would  be  removed 
from  the  politics  of  the  capital.  With  such  an  arrangement 
of  the  affairs  at  Rome,  Caesar  departed  with  his  legions  to 
Gaul. 

Renewal  of  the  Triumvirate  at  Lucca  (56  B.  c.). — If  Cassar 
made  a  mistake,  it  was  in  putting  such  a  man  as  Clodius  in 
charge  of  his  interests  at  Rome.  Clodius  was  by  nature  an  ad- 
venturer and  a  demagogue ;  and  by  his  rash  acts  he  came  near 
breaking  up  the  triumvirate.  He  allied  himself  with  the 
rabble  of  Rome;  he  paraded  the  streets  with  bands  of  armed 
ruffians,  and  the  capital  was  threatened  with  mob  rule.  Pom- 
pey as  well  as  the  senate  became  disgusted  with  the  regime  of 
Clodius.  They  united  their  influence  and  obtained  the  recall 
of  Cicero  from  his  exile.  At  the  same  time  Cato  returned 
from  his  absence  in  Cyprus.  With  the  return  of  the  old  sena- 
torial leaders,  and  the  disaffection  of  Pompey,  it  looked  as 
though  the  senate  would  once  more  regain  its  power,  and  the 
triumvirate  would  go  to  pieces. 

But  the  watchful  eye  of  Caesar  detected  these  symptoms  of 
discontent,  and  a  conference  of  the  leaders  took  place  at  Lucca, 
a  town  in  northern  Italy  (see  map,  p.  303),  where  a  new  ar- 
rangement was  brought  about.  Caesar  was  now  to  be  given  an 
additional  term  of  five  years  in  Gaul,  and  to  be  elected  consul 
at  the  end  of  that  time;  Pompey  and  Crassus  were  now  to  re- 
ceive the  consulship;  and  at  the  close  of  their  term  of  office 
Pompey  was  to  have  the  provinces  of  Spain  and  Africa,  and  the 
money-loving  Crassus  was  to  receive  the  rich  province  of  Syria. 
In  this  way  they  would  divide  the  world  among  them.  The 
terms  of  the  agreement  were  apparently  satisfactory  to  the 
parties  concerned.  Caesar  now  felt  that  matters  at  Rome 
were  safe,  at  least  until  he  could  complete  his  work  in 


POMPEY    AND    (LESAR 


385 


Gaul  and  fortify  his  own  power  with  a  devoted  and  invincible 
army. 

Caesar  and  the  Conquest  of  Gaul  (58-51  B.  c. )  .—Within 
eight  years  Caesar  brought  under  his  power  all  the  territory 
bounded  by  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Atlantic 


THE  PROVINCE  OF  GAUL 

Ocean,  or  about  what  corresponds  to  the  modern  countries  of 
France,  Belgium,  and  Holland.  He  at  first  conquered  the 
Helve'tii,  a  tribe  lying  on  the  outskirts  of  his  own  province  of 
Narbonensis.  He  then  met  and  drove  back  a  great  invasion  of 
Germans,  who,  under  a  prince  called  Ariovis'tus,  had  crossed 
the  Rhine,  and  threatened  to  overrun  the  whole  of  Gaul.  He 
then  pushed  into  the  northern  parts  of  Gaul,  and  conquered 
the  Nervii  and  the  neighboring  tribes.  He  overcame  the 


386  THE    ROMAN   WORLD 

Ven'eti  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  conquered  Aquitania.  lie 
also  made  two  invasions  into  Britain  (55,  54  B.  c.),  crossed  the 
Rhine  into  Germany,  and  revealed  to  the  Roman  soldiers  coun- 
tries they  had  never  seen  before.  After  once  subduing  the 
various  tribes  of  Gaul,  he  was  finally  called  upon  to  suppress  a 
general  insurrection,  led  by  a  powerful  leader  called  Vercin- 
get'orix.  The  conquest  of  Gaul  was  then  completed. 

A  large  part  of  the  population  had  been  either  slain  in  war 
or  reduced  to  slavery.  The  new  territory  was  pacified  by  be- 
stowing honors  upon  the  Gallic  chiefs,  and  self-government 
upon  the  surviving  tribes.  The  Roman  legions  were  distrib- 
uted through  the  territory;  but  Caesar  established  no  military 
colonies  like  those  of  Sulla.  The  Roman  arts  and  manners 
were  encouraged;  and  Gaul  was  brought  within  the  pale  of 
civilization. 

III.    THE  SUPREMACY  OF  CAESAR 

Dissolution  of  the  Triumvirate. — While  Caesar  was  absent 
in  Gaul,  the  ties  which  bound  the  three  leaders  together  were 
becoming  weaker  and  weaker.  The  position  of  Crassus  tended 
somewhat,  as  long  as  he  was  alive,  to  allay  the  growing  sus- 
picion between  the  two  great  rivals.  But  after  Crassus  de- 
parted for  the  East  to  take  control  of  his  province  in  Syria,  he 
invaded  Parthia,  was  badly  defeated,  lost  the  Roman  stand- 
ards, and  was  himself  killed  (53  B.  c.).  The  death  of  Crassus 
practically  dissolved  the  triumvirate;  or  we  might  rather  say, 
it  reduced  the  triumvirate  to  a  duumvirate.  But  the  relation 
between  the  two  leaders  was  now  no  longer  one  of  friendly  sup- 
port, but  one  of  mutual  distrust. 

,L  Alliance  of  Pompey  with  the  Senate. — "Pompcy  was  not 
only  drawing  away  from  Caesar;  he  was  also  coming  into  closer 
relations  with  the  senate,  which  frit  tlic  need  of  sonic  strong 
military  support.  The  city  was  distracted  by  continual 
fignts  between  the  armed  bands  of  Clod  ins.  Hie 


POMPEY    AND   G3SSAII 


387 


and  those  of  T.  Annius  Milo,  who  professed  to  he  defending 
the  cause  of  the  senate.  In  one  of  these  broils  Clodius  was 
killed.  His  excited  followers  made  his  death  the  occasion  of 
riotous  proceedings.  His 
body  was  burned  in  the 
Forum  by  the  wild  mob, 
and  the  senate  house  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  In  the 
anarchy  which  followed, 
the  senate  felt  obliged  to 
confer  some  extraordi- 
nary power  upon  Pom- 
pey.  On  the  proposal  of 
Cairo,  he  was  appointed 
"  consul  without  a  col- 
league." Under  this 
unusual  title  Pompey  re- 
stored order  to  the  state, 
and  was  looked  upon  as 
"  the  savior  of  society." 
He  became  more  and 

more  closely  bound  to  the  cause  of  the  senate;  and  the  senate 
recognized  its  obligations  to  him  by  prolonging  his  command 
in  Spain  for  five  years. 

Rupture  between  the  Senate  and  Caesar. — It  was  a  part  of 
the  agreement  made  at  the  conference  of  Lucca,  we  remember 
(p.  384),  that  Caesar  was  to  receive  the  consulship  at  the  close 
of  his  command  in  Gaul.  He  naturally  wished  to  retain  the 
control  of  his  army  until  he  had  been  elected  to  his  new  office. 
The  senate  was  determined  that  he  should  not,  but  should 
present  himself  at  Rome  as  a  private  citizen  before  his  election. 
Caesar  well  knew  that  he  would  be  helpless  as  a  private  citizen 
in  the  presence  of  the  enemies  who  were  seeking  to  destroy 
him.  Cato  had  already  declared  that  he  would  prosecute  him 
as  soon  as  he  ceased  to  be  proconsul  in  Gaul.  Caesar  promised, 


CATO  THE"  YOUNGER 


388  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

however,  to  give  up  his  province  and  his  army,  if  Pompey 
would  do  the  same;  but  Pompey  refused.  The  senate  then 
called  upon  Caesar  to  give  up  two  of  his  legions,  on  the  plea 
that  they  were  needed  in  the  Parthian  war.  The  legions  were 
given  up;  but  instead  of  being  sent  to  the  East  they  were  sta- 
tioned in  Campania.  Upon  further  demands,  Caesar  agreed  to 
give  up  eight  legions  of  his  army  if  he  were  allowed  to  retain 
two  legions  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  until  the  time  of  his  election. 
This  the  senate  refused;  and  demanded  that  he  must  give  up 
his  province  and  his  whole  army  by  a  certain  day,  or  be  de- 
clared a  public  enemy.  The  senate  had  offered  him  humiliation 
or  war.  He  chose  war,  and  crossed  the  Rubicon  (49  B.  c.), 
the  stream  which  separated  his  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  from 
Italy. 

Civil  War  between  Pompey  and  Caesar. — The  contest  was 
now  reduced  to  a  struggle  between  Pompey,  the  champion  of 
the  senate,  and  Caesar,- the  champion  of  the  people.  Caesar 
knew  the  value  of  time ;  at  the  instant  when  he  decided  upon 
war,  he  invaded  Italy  with  a  single  legion.  Pompey,  unpre- 
pared for  such  a  sudden  move  and  not  relying  upon  the  two 
legions  which  the  senate  had  taken  from  Caesar,  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  to  Brundisium  (see  map,  p.  305).  Besieged  in  this 
place  by  Caesar,  he  skillfully  withdrew  his  forces  to  Greece, 
and  left  Caesar  master  of  Italy. 

The  campaigns  of  Caesar  against  Pompey  and  his  supporters 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (1)  He  dispatched  his  Gallic 
legions  across  the  Pyrenees  into  Spain  (49  B.  c.)  and  destroyed 
the  armies  of  Pompey's  lieutenants.  (2)  He  crossed  the  Adri- 
atic Sea  into  Greece;  was  defeated  at  Dyrra'chiurn  (map,  p. 
.334),  and  then  in  the  decisive  battle  at  Pharsa'lus  (48  B.  c.) 
defeated  Pompey,  who  fled  to  Egypt  and  was  treacherously 
slain  by  an  Egyptian  soldier.  (3)  He  entered  Egypt  to  quell 
a  civil  war  between  the  young  Egyptian  prince,  Ptolemy,  and 
his  sister,  Cleopa'tra;  defeated  the  army  of  Ptolemy,  and 
placed  Cleopatra  on  the  Egyptian  throne.  (4)  On  his  re- 


POMPEY    AND 


389 


turn  to  Italy  by  way  of  Asia  Minor,  he  defeated  (at  Zela,  47 
B.  c. ;  map,  p.  394)  Phar'naces,  the  king  of  Pontus  and  son  of 
the  great  Mithridates,  who  was  trying  to  stir  up  a  revolt  in  the 
eastern  provinces, — sending  to  the  senate  the  famous  dispatch, 
re  Veni,  vidi,  vici."  ( 5 )  He  passed  over  into  Africa,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Thapsus  (46  B.  c.)  defeated  the  senatorial  forces  led 
by  Cato,  who  committed  suicide  after  the  battle.  (6)  At  the 
battle  of  Munda  in  Spain  (45  B.  c.)  he  crushed  the  last  at- 
tempt at  resistance,  led  by  the  sons  of  Pompey. 

Caesar's  Triumphs  and  Titles. — When  Caesar  returned  to 
Rome,  he  came  not  as  the  servant  of  the  senate,  but  as  master 
of 'the  world.  He  crowned  his  victories  by  four  splendid  tri- 
umphs, one  for  Gaul,  one  for  Egypt,  one  for  Pontus.  and  one 
for  Africa.  He  made  no  reference  to  th«  civil  war;  and  no 
citizens  were  led  among  his  cap- 
tives. His  victory  was  attended 
by  no  massacres,  no  proscriptions, 
no  confiscations.  He  was  as  gener- 
ous in  peace  as  he  had  been 
relentless  in  war.  CaBsar  was 
great  enough  to  forgive  his  ene- 
mies. A  general  amnesty  was  pro- 
claimed; and  friend  and  foe  were 
treated  alike.  During  the  period 
of  his  rule  (49-44  B.  c.)  he  exer- 
cised his  power  under  various 
titles.  He  was  consul,  dictator, 
controller  of  public  morals  (prce- 
fectus  morum),  tribune,  pontifex 
maximus,  and  chief  of  the  senate 
(princeps  senatus).  He  thus 
gathered  up  in  his  own  person  the 
powers  which  had  been  scattered  among  the  various  republican 
officers.  The  name  of  "  impera'tor,"  with  which  the  soldiers 
had  been  accustomed  to  salute  a  victorious  general,  was  now 


JULIUS  C^SAR  (Capitol) 


390  THE   ROMAN   WORLD 

made  an  official  title,  and  prefixed  to  his  name.  In  Caesar 
was  thus  embodied  the  one-man  power  which  had  heen  grow- 
ing up  during  the  civil  wars. 

Caesar's  Legislation. — The  only  man  of  the  Roman  republic 
who  can  well  be  compared  with  Caesar  is  Sulla.  They  both  ob- 
tained an  imperial  position  in  the  Roman  state.  They  were 
also  both  able  politicians  and  constructive  statesmen.  But  a 
wide  gulf  separates  the  constitution  of  Sulla  from  the  legisla- 
tion of  Caesar.  The  one  was  based  upon  the  narrow  interests 
of  a  selfish  aristocratic  class;  the  other  rested  upon  the  com- 
mon interests  of  the  Roman  people.  In  the  light  of  this  whole 
period  which  we  are  now  studying,  we  may  say  that  the  con- 
stitution of  Sulla  was  an  obstacle  to  the  general  drift  of  popu- 
lar reform;  while  the  legislation  of  Caesar  brought  to  a  success- 
ful issue  the  beneficent  movement  begun  by  the  Gracchi.  Let 
us  make  a  brief  summary  of  what  Caesar  did  during  his  brief 
career  as  political  ruler: 

(1)  He  took  away  the  aristocratic  character  of  the  senate  by 
raising  the  number  of  its  members  to  nine  hundred,  including 
representative  men  from  all  classes  in  Italy  and  the  provinces. 

(2)  He  extended  the  right  of  citizenship  to  the  people  be- 
yond the  Po  and  to  many  communities  in  Gaul  and  Spain. 

(3)  He  opened  colonies  in  the  provinces,  by  which  80,000 
landless  citizens  in  Italy  were  provided  with  homes. 

(4)  He  revived  the  municipal  life  of  Italy,  and  reorganized 
the  municipal  system  so  as  to  make  it  apply  equally  to  Italy 
and  the  provinces. 

(5)  He  changed  the  oppressive  system  of  taxation  in  the 
provinces  by  dispensing  with  the  avaricious  tax-gatherer  and 
permitting  each  town  to  collect  its  own  fixed  share  of  the  tax. 

(6)  He  reenacted  the  old  Licinian  law  which  provided  for  a 
certain  number  of  free  laborers  on  every  estate. 

(7)  He  passed  a  bankruptcy  law  which  relieved  debtors  from 
their  obligations  by  relinquishing  their  entire  estates  to  their 
creditors — thus  doing  away  with  imprisonment  for  debt. 


POMPEY   AND   CAESAR  391 

(8)  He  reduced  the  number  of  poor  receiving  state  aid  from 
320,000  to  150,000,  and  afforded  means  of  employment  by  en- 
couraging public  works. 

(9)  He  also  reformed  the  calendar,  which  has  remained  sub- 
stantially as  he  fixed  it,  to  the  present  day;  and  he  provided 
for  a  regular  census  which  should  apply  not  only  to  Rome  but 
to  every  Roman  community. 

Besides  these  acts  it  was  his  purpose  also  to  codify  the  Ro- 
man law;  to  provide  for  the  founding  of  public  libraries;  to 
improve  the  architecture  of  the  city;  to  drain  the  Pontine 
Marshes  for  the  improvement  of  the  public  health;  to 'cut  a 
channel  through  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth;  and  to  extend  the 
empire  to  its  natural  limits,  the  Euphrates,  the  Danube,  and 
the  Rhine.  These  acts  and  projects  illustrate  the  compre- 
hensive mind  of  Caesar.  They  show  that  the  one-man  power 
which  he  established  had  for  its  object  the  highest  welfare  of 
the  whole  Roman  state. 

The  Assassination  of  Caesar. — If  Caesar  failed  in  anything, 
it  was  in  not  adjusting  himself  sufficiently  to  the  conservative 
spirit  of  the  time.  There  were  still  living  at  Rome  men  who 
were  blindly  attached  to  the  old  republican  forms.  To  them 
the  reforms  of  Caesar  looked  like  a  work  of  destruction,  rather 
than  a  work  of  creation.  They  saw  in  his  projects  a  scheme 
for  reviving  the  kingship.  It  was  said  that  when  Caesar  was 
offered  a  crown  he  looked  at  it  wistfully;  and  that  he  had  se- 
lected his  nephew  Octavius  as  his  royal  heir. 

The  men  who  hated  Caesar,  and  who  conspired  to  kill  him, 
were  men  who  had  themselves  received  special  favors  from  him. 
The  leading  conspirators,  M.  Brutus  and  C.  Cassius,  had  both 
served  in  Pompey's  army,  and  had  been  pardoned  by  Caesar 
and  promoted  to  offices  under  his  government.  Joined  by  some 
fifty  other  conspirators,  these  men  formed  a  plot  to  kill  Caesar 
in  the  senate  house.  The  story  of  his  assassination  has  been 
told  by  Plutarch  and  made  immortal  by  Shakespeare'.  When 
the  appointed  day  came,  the  Ides  of  March  (March  15,  44 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT   HIST. 23 


392  THE   ROMAN   WORLD 

B.  c.),  Caesar  was  struck  down  by  the  daggers  of  his  treacherous 
friends,  and  he  fell  at  the  foot  of  Pompey's  statue.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  murder  of  Caesar  was  the  most  senseless  act  that 
the  Romans  ever  committed.  His  death  deprived  Rome  of  the 
greatest  man  she  ever  produced.  But  the  work  of  the  con- 
spirators did  not  destroy  the  work  of  Caesar. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  RISE  OF  POMPEY  AND  CRASSUS. — The  Drift  of  Roman 
Politics. — The    Three    Revolts:    Lepidus,    Sertorius,    Spartacus. — 
The    Consulship    of    Pompey    and    Crassus. — Overthrow    of    the 
Sullan  Constitution. — The  Military  Supremacy  of  Pompey. 

II.  THE    COALITION   OF    POMPEY,    C^SAB,    AND   CRASSUS. — The 
Rise  of  Julius  Caesar. — Cicero  and  the  Catilinian  Conspiracy. — 
Formation    of   the     "First     Triumvirate." — The     Consulship     of 
Caesar. — Renewal  of  the  Triumvirate  at  Lucca. —  Caesar  and  the 
Conquest  of  Gaul. 

III.  THE  SUPREMACY  OF  C.^SAR. — Dissolution  of  the  Triumvirate. 
— Alliance  of  Pompey  with   the   Senate. — Rupture  between   the 
Senate  and   Caesar. — Civil   War   between    Pompey    and    Caesar. — 
Caesar's  Triumphs  and  Titles. — Caesar's  Legislation. — The  Assas- 
sination of  Caesar. 

REFERENCES   FOR   READING 

Liddell,  Ch.  72,  "Revolutionary  Attempts  of  Lepidus,  Sertorius, 
Spartacus'*  (18). * 

Schuckburgh,  Ch.  42,  "Pompey  in  the  East"  (18). 

How   and   Leigh,   Ch.   47,    "Cicero   and    Catiline";    Ch.    49,    "The 
Conquest  of  Gaul"  (18). 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  40,  "The  First  Triumvirate"  (18). 

Pelham,  Bk.  V.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Dictatorship  of  Julius"  (18). 

Mommsen,  Vol.  IV.,  Bk.  V.,  Ch.  11,  "The  Old  Republic  and  the 

New  Monarchy"  (18). 
-  (Abridged),  Ch.  35,  "Joint  Rule  of  Pompey  and  Caesar"  (18). 

Taylor,  Ch.  15,  "Caesar"  (22). 

Abbott,    Ch.    6,    "Struggle    between    the    Democracy    and    the 
Nobilitas"   (22). 

Granrud,  Fourth  Period,  Ch.  7,  "The  Rule  of  Caesar"  (22). 

Shakespeare,  "Julius  Caesar." 

Forsyth,  Cicero,  pp.  319-330  (character  of  Cicero)  (27). 

Oman,  Seven  Great  Statesmen,  Ch.  5,  "Sulla";  Ch.  8,  "Pompey"; 
Ch.  9,  "Caesar"  (26). 

Froude,  Caesar,  Ch.  11,  "Conspiracy  of  Catiline";   Ch.  28,  "Char- 
acter of  Caesar"  (27). 

'The   figure   in    parenthesis   refers   to  the  number  of  the  topic  In   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


ANTONY   AND   OCTAVIUS  393 

Fowler,    Caesar,    Ch.    7,    "Caesar's     First    Consulship";    Ch.    18, 

"Caesar's  Use  of  Absolute  Power"  (27). 
Dodge,  Caesar,  Ch.  24,    "Caesar's  Army"  (27). 
Munro,  Source  Book,  Part  V1IL,  "Last  Century  of  the  Republic" 

(25). 

Plutarch,   "Sertorius,"   "Lucullus,"   "Pompey,"   "Crassus,"   "Cato 
the  Younger,"  "Caesar,"  "Cicero"  (26). 


CHAPTER    XXVII 

THE    LAST   STRUGGLE   FOR   THE   EMPIRE— ANTONY   AND 

OCTAVIUS 

I.     THE  RISE  OF  ANTONY  AND  OCTAVIUS 

The  Confusion  after  Caesar's  Death. — ^We  need  not  be  sur- 
prised that  the  death  of  Caesar  was  followed  by  confusion  and 
dismay.  His  murderers  considered  themselves  as  "  liberators  " 
of  the  republic.  But  their  rash  act  gave  to  Rome  another 
period  of  strife  and  civil  war.  They  had  killed  Caesar;  but 
they  had  provided  for  no  one  to  take  his  place.  If  they 
thought  that  the  senate  would  be  restored  to  its  old  position 
they  were  grievously  mistaken.  The  only  leading  man  of  the 
senate  who  had  survived  the  last  civil  war  was  Cicero;  but 
Cicero  with  all  his  learning  and  eloquence  could  not  take  the 
place  of  Caesar.  Soon  there  appeared  new  actors  upon  the 
scene,  men  struggling  for  the  supreme  power  in  the  state — M. 
Anto'nius  (An' tony),  the  friend  of  Caesar  and  his  fellow-con- 
sul; C.  Octavius,  his  adopted  son  and  heir;  M.  ^Emilius  Lepi- 
dus,  his  master  of  horse;  Sextus  Pompeius,  his  previous  enemy 
and  the  son  of  his  greatest  rival; Awhile  Cicero  still  raised  his 
voice  in  defense  of  what  he  regarded  as  his  country's  freedom. 

The  Elevation  of  Antony. — The  man  who  had  stood  near- 
est to  Caesar  was  Antony,  his  fellow-consul.  He  claimed  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  carry  out  the  purpose  of  his  murdered  chief. 
He  got  possession  of  Caesar's  will  a,nd  treasures,  and  influenced 


16. 


394 


ANTONY    AND    OCTAVIUS 


395 


iln1  senate  to  confirm  all  of  Caesar's  acts.    He  called  upon  (he 
people  to  rise  up  and  avenge  the  death  of  their  greatest  friend. 
The  liberators  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the  city.     They  has- 
tened   to    the    provinces 
to  which  they  had  pre- 
viously been  assigned  by 
Caesar — Cassius  to  Syria, 
Marcus  Brutus  to  Mace- 
donia, and  Decimus  Bru- 
tus to  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

The  Appearance  of 
Octavius. — The  only  per- 
son who  could  well  dis- 
pute the  claims  of  An- 
tony was  Octavius  —  a 
young  man  of  nineteen, 
who  was  Caesar's  grand- 
nephew  and  adopted  heir. 
This  young  man  assumed 
his  adopted  name  Gaius 
Julius  Caesar  Octavia'nus 
and  disputed  with  Antony  the  right  to  act  as  Cesar's  repre- 
sentative. By  his  great  generosity  he  won  the  favor  of  the 
people,  who  called  him  by  the  magic  name  of  Caesar.  He  now 
began  to  show  that  adroit  skill  for  which  he  was  afterward 
noted.  His  first  purpose  was  to  weaken  Antony,  who  had  de- 
prived him  of  his  inheritance.  He  therefore  saw  fit  to  unite 
his  cause  with  that  of  the  senate,  which  was  already  opposed 
to  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Antony.  By  this  piece  of  diplo- 
macy Octavius  gained  the  influence  of  Cicero,  the  leader  of  the 
senatorial  party. 

Cicero's  Attack  upon  Antony. — The  hostility  between 
Cicero  and  Antony  grew  to  be  bitter  and  relentless;  and  they 
were  pitted  against  each  other  on  the  floor  of  the  senate.  But 
in  a  war  of  words  Antony  was  no  match  for  Cicero.  By  a 


ANTONY 


396 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


series  of  famous  speeches  known  as  the  "  Philippics,"  the  popu- 
larity of  Antony  was  crushed;  and  he  retired  from  Eome  to 
seek  for  victory  upon  other  fields.  He  claimed  Cisalpine  Gaul 
as  his  province.  But  this  province  was  still  held  by  Decimus 
Brutus,  one  of  the  liberators,  to  whom  the  senate  looked  for 
military  support. 

AVhen  Antony  attempted  to  gain  possession  of  this  territory, 
Cicero  thought  he  saw  an  opportunity  to  use  Octavius  in  the 

interests  of  the  senate. 
Accordingly  Antony  was 
declared  a  public  enemy; 
Octavius  was  made  a 
senator  with  the  rank  of 
consul,  and  was  author- 
ized to  conduct  the  war 
against  Antony.  In  this 
war — the  so-called  war  of 
Mu'tina  (44-43  B.  c.)— 
Octavius  was  successful. 
As  a  reward  for  his  vic- 
tory he  demanded  of  the 
senate  that  he  receive  a 
triumph  and  the  consul- 
ship. Cicero  and  the  sen- 
ate had  intended  Decimus 
Brutus  for  this  office,  and 

the  request  of  Octavius  was  refused.  But  the  young  heir, 
then  twenty  years  of  age,  following  the  example  of  Caesar,  en- 
forced his  claim  with  the  sword;  he  took  possession  of  the 
city,  and  obtained  his  election  to  the  consulship.  Octavius 
thus  became  the  ruling  man  in  Rome. 

Formation  of  the  Second  Triumvirate  (43  B.  c.). — The 
senate  had  lost  the  support  of  Octavius  by  opposing  his  elec- 
tion to  the  consulship.  The  young  leader  now  sought  to  secure 
his  position  by  reconciling  his  previous  enemy,  Antony.  An- 


THE  YOUNG  OCTAVIUS 


ANTONY    AND   OCTAVIUS  397 

tony  was  supported  by  Lepidus,  who  had  an  army  in  Transal- 
pine Gaul.  A  coalition  was  formed  between  these  three  leaders 
— Antony,  Octavius,  and  Lepidus — usually  called  the  "  Second 
Triumvirate."  Unlike  the  First  Triumvirate,  this  was  sanc- 
tioned by  a  law  of  the  tribal  assembly.  The  leaders  agreed  to 
oppose  the  senate,  to  divide  among  themselves  the  western 
provinces,  and  then  to  make  war  upon  the  chief  liberators, 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  who  held  possession  of  the  eastern  prov- 
inces. They  assumed  a  dictatorial  power  for  five  years,  with 
the  right  of  appointing  all  magistrates.  Their  decrees  were 
to  have  the  force  of  law  without  the  approval  of  either  the 
senate  or  the  people. 

It  is  to  the  eternal  disgrace  of  these  men  who  professed  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  Caesar,  that  they  abandoned  the  humane 
policy  of  their  great  exemplar,  and  returned  to  the  infamous 
policy  of  Marius  and  Sulla.  Antony  especially  desired  a  pro- 
scription, as  he  was  surrounded  by  thousands  of  personal 
enemies,  chief  among  whom  was  Cicero,  the  author  of  the 
"  Philippics."  It  is  said  that  three  hundred  senators  and  two 
thousand  equites  were  outlawed  and  their  property  was  con- 
fiscated; besides,  a  large  number  of  persons  were  slain.  The 
most  distinguished  victim  of  this  horrible  work  was  Cicero. 
When  the  old  man  was  warned  of  his  danger  and  urged  to  flee, 
he  replied,  "  Let  me  die  in  my  fatherland,  which  I  have  so 
often  saved." 

War  against  the  Liberators;  Battle  of  Philippi  (42  B.  c.).— 
Having  murdered  their  enemies  at  home,  the  triumvirs  were 
now  prepared  to  crush  their  enemies  abroad.  There  were  three 
of  these  enemies  whom  they  were  obliged  to  meet — Brutus  and 
Cassius,  who  had  united  their  forces  in  the  East;  and  Sextus 
Pompeius,  who  had  got  possession  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  and 
had  under  his  command  a  powerful  fleet.  While  Lepidus  re- 
mained at  Rome,  Antony  and  Octavius  invaded  Greece  to  meet 
the  two  liberators,  Brutus  and  Cassius.  The  hostile  forces  met 
near  Philip'pi  (42  B.  c.),  a  town  in  Macedonia  on  the  north- 


398 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


PhilippU 


em  coast  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  (see  map,  p,  334).     Octavius  was 
opposed  to  Brutus,  and  Antony  to  Cassius.     Octavius  was 

driven  back  by  Brutus, 
while  Antony,  more  fortu- 
nate, drove  back  the  wing 
commanded  by  Cassius. 
As  Cassius  saw  his  flying 
legions,  he  thought  that 
all  was  lost,  and  stabbed 
himself  with  the  same 
dagger,  it  is  said,  with 
which  he  struck  CaBsar. 
This  left  Brutus  in  sole 
command  of  the  oppos- 
ing army;  but  he  also 
was  defeated  in  a  second 

battle,  and,  following  the 
BATTLE  OF  PHILIPPI 

example  of  Cassius,  com- 
mitted suicide.  By  the  battle  at  Philippi  the  last  opposition 
to  the  triumvirs  was  destroyed. 


N 


8      E 


II.     CIVIL  WAR  BETWEEN  ANTONY  AND  OCTAVIUS 

New  Division  of  the  Provinces. — The  Eoman  world  was 
now  under  the  power  .of  Antony,  Octavius,  and  Lepidus,  who 
proceeded  to  a  redivision  of  the  provinces.  But  Lepidus  was 
too  weak  to  receive  much  consideration.  Antony  was  to  take 
control  of  the  eastern  provinces,  and  to  push  the  Roman  con- 
quests if  possible  into  Parthia.  Octavius  was  to  preserve  the 
peace  of  Italy  and  the  western  provinces,  and  to  destroy  the 
fleet  of  Sextus  Pompeius,  which  was  interfering  with  Roman 
commerce  and  threatening  to  cut  off  the  grain  supplies  of  Italy. 
Lepidus  had  to  be  satisfied  with  the  small  province  of  Africa. 

Octavius  in  the  West. — Octavius  proceeded  to  secure  his 
position  in  the  West  by  means  of  force  and  craft.  He  first 


ANTONY    AND    OCTAVIUS  399 

put  down  an  insurrection  incited  by  the  partisans  of  Antony. 
The  young  conqueror  won  the  affections  of  the  people,  and 
tried  to  show  them  that  peace  and  prosperity  could  come  only 
through  his  influence.  Next,  with  the  help  of  his  friend  and 
able  general,  Agrip'pa,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  hundred  ships 
lent  him  by  Antony,  Octavius  destroyed  the  forces  of  Sextus 
Pompeius.  The  defeated  general  fled  to  the  East,  and  was 
killed  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony. 

Octavius  was  then  called  upon  to  deal  with  a  treacherous 
friend.  This  was  the  weak  and  ambitious  Lepidus,  who  with 
twenty  legions  fancied  that  he  could  defeat  Octavius  and  be- 
come the  chief  man  of  Rome.  But  Octavius  did  not  think  the 
emergency  grave  enough  to  declare  war.  He  defeated  Lepidus 
without  a  battle.  Unarmed  and  almost  unattended  he  entered 
his  rival's  camp,  and  made  an  eloquent  appeal  to  the  soldiers. 
The  whole  army  of  Lepidus  deserted  to  Octavius.  Lepidus 
was  deposed  from  his  position  as  triumvir,  but  was  generously 
allowed  to  retain  the  office  of  pontifex  maximus.  By  the  use 
of  force  and  diplomacy  Octavius  thus  baffled  all  his  foes  in  the 
West,  and  he  and  Antony  were  now  the 
undisputed  rulers  of  the  Roman  world. 

Antony  in  the  East. — While  every- 
thing in  the  West  was  turning  in 
favor  of  Octavius,  all  things  in  the 
East  were  also  contributing  to  his  suc- 
cess. But  this  was  due  not  only  to  his 
own  skill  but  to  the  weakness  and 
folly  of  Antony.  Octavius  had  tried 
to  cement  the  league  of  the  triumvirs 
by  giving  his  sister  Octavia  to  Antony  CLEOPATRA 

in  marriage.     But  Antony  soon  grew 

tired  of  Octavia,  and  became  fascinated  by  Cleopatra,  the 
"  Serpent  of  the  Nile."  He  aspired  to  the  position  of  an  Orien- 
tal monarch.  He  divided  the  Roman  provinces  with  Cleopatra, 
who  was  called  "  the  queen  of  kings."  The  Roman  people 


400  THE   ROMAN    WORLD 

were  shocked  when  he  desired  his  disgraceful  acts  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  senate.  They  could  not  help  contrasting  this 
weak  and  infatuated  slave  of  Cleopatra  with  their  own  Octa- 
vius,  the  strong  and  prudent  governor  of  the  West.  While 
Octavius  was  growing  in  popularity,  Antony  was  thus  becom- 
ing more  and  more  an  object  of  detestation. 

Rupture  between  Antony  and  Octavius. — The  strong  feel- 
ing at  Rome  against  Antony,  Octavius  was  able  to  use  to  his 
own  advantage.  The  people  suspected  Antony  of  treasonable 
designs,  as  they  saw  his  military  preparations,  which  might 
be  used  to  enthrone  himself  as  king  of  the  East,  or  to  install 
Cleopatra  as  queen  of  Rome.  All  doubt  as  to  Antony's  real 
character  and  purpose  was  settled  when  his  will  was  found  and 
published.  In  it  he  had  made  the  sons  of  Cleopatra  his  heirs, 
and  ordered  his  own  body  to  be  buried  at  Alexandria  beside 
that  of  the  Egyptian  queen.  This  was  looked  upon  as  an  insult 
to  the  majesty  of  Rome.  The  citizens  were  aroused.  They 
demanded  that  war  be  declared  against  the  hated  triumvir. 
Octavius  suggested  that  it  would  be  more  wise  to  declare  war 
against  Cleopatra  than  against  Antony  and  the  deluded  citizens 
who  had  espoused  his  cause.  Thus  what  was  really  a  civil  war 
between  Octavius  and  Antony  assumed  the  appearance  of  a  for- 
eign war  between  Rome  and  Egypt.  But  Antony  well  under- 
stood against  whom  the  war  was  directed ;  and  he  replied  by 
publicly  divorcing  Octavia,  and  accepting  his  real  position  as 
the  public  enemy  of  Rome. 

Battle  of  Actium  (31  B.  c.). — When  war  was  declared,  An- 
tony and  Cleopatra  united  their  forces  against  Rome.  Antony 
gathered  together  an  immense  army  and  occupied  the  western 
coasts  of  Greece,  where  he  could  either  threaten  Italy  or  resist 
the  approach  of  Octavius.  His  main  army  was  posted  at 
Actium  (see  map,  p.  334),  south  of  the  strait  leading  into  the 
Gulf  of  Ambracia.  His  fleet  was  for  the  most  part  moored 
within  the  gulf.  Octavius,  with  the  aid  of  his  trustod  general 
Agrippa,  succeeded  in  transporting  an  army  to  the  coast  of 


ANTONY    AND    OCTAVIUS 


401 


BATTLE  OF  ACTIUM 


Epirus,  and  took  up  a  position  north  of  the  strait  and  opposite 
the  land  forces  of  Antony.  His  fleet  was  stationed  outside  of 
the  strait  to  await  the  approach  of  the  enemy's  vessels.  An- 
tony, on  the  advice  of  his  ablest  officers,  desired  that  the  battle 
should  be  waged  with  the  land  forces.  But  Cleopatra,  proud 
of  her  navy,  insisted  that  it  should  be  fought  on  the  sea.  The 
contest  was  therefore  de- 
cided by  a  naval  battle. 
As  the  fleet  of  Antony 
emerged  from  the  strait, 
it  was  immediately  at- 
tacked by  Octavius  and 
Agrippa.  But  scarcely 
had  the  battle  begun 
when  Cleopatra  with  her 
squadron  withdrew  from 
the  line,  and  was  quickly 
followed  by  Antony.  Their  sailors  fought  on  until  their  fleet 
was  destroyed.  The  battle  of  Actium  closed  the  political  ca- 
reer of  Antony,  and  left  Octavius  the  sole  master  of  the  Ro- 
man world. 

Before  returning  to  Rome  Octavius  restored  order  to  the 
eastern  provinces,  and  followed  the  fugitives  to  Egypt.  An- 
tony, defeated  and  ruined,  committed  suicide;  and  Cleopatra 
followed  his  example  rather  than  be  led  a  captive  in  a  Roman 
triumph.  Together  this  wretched  pair  were  laid  in  the  mauso- 
leum of  the  Ptolemies.  Egypt  was  annexed  as  a  provinc'e  of 
the  new  empire  (30  B.  c.).  Octavius  returned  to  Rome  (29 
B.  c.),  where  he  was  given  a  triple  triumph — for  Dalmatia 
(part  of  Illyricum,  where  he  had  won  some  previous  victories), 
for  Actium,  and  for  Egypt.  The  temple  of  Janus — the  doors 
of  which  were  always  left  open  in  time  of  war — was  now- closed 
for  the  first  time  since' the  second  Punic  war;  and  the  Romans, 
tired  of  civil  strife  and  bloodshed,  looked  upon  the  triumph  of 
Octavius  as  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  of  peace  and  prosperity. 


402  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

III.    REVIEW  OF  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  CIVIL  WARS 

Political  Progress  at  Rome. — There  is  no  period  of  Roman 
history  more  eventful  or  instructive  than  that  which  we  have 
just  considered — extending  from  the  time  of  the  Gracchi  to 
the  triumph  of  Octavius.  If  we  look  merely  at  the  surface  of 
events,  it  may  perhaps  seem  to  be  hardly  more  than  a  period  of 
strife,  of  turmoil,  of  revolution,  and  of  civil  war.  But  if  we 
compare  the  wretched  condition  of  things  which  Tiberius 
Gracchus  first  sought  to  remedy,  with  the  new  system  which 
Julius  Ca3sar  established  and  Octavius  sought  to  make  perma- 
nent, we  must  Conclude  that  it  was  during  this  time  that  the 
Roman  people  were  working  out  the  greatest  political  problems 
of  their  history.  In  the  midst  of  the  greatest  discouragements, 
and  often  under  incompetent  leaders,  they  continued  to  fight 
for  justice,  until  they  at  last  found  a  chieftain  capable  of  de- 
fending their  interests.  The  people  learned  that  they  could  not 
secure  their  rights  by  means  of  unwieldy  assemblies,  which 
were  often  ruled  by  ambitious  demagogues — and  they  had  not 
discovered  the  modern  principle  of  representation.  If  they 
could  not  obtain  a  government  by  the  people,  they  could  at 
least  obtain  a  government  for  the  people,  under  the  control  of 
an  efficient  magistrate  devoted  to  their  interests.  With  our  ad- 
vanced political  ideas  and  experience,  we  may  not  believe  that 
Roman  imperialism  is  the  best  form  of  government;  it  was 
yet  the  highest  and  most  successful  form  of  government  devel- 
oped in  the  ancient  world.  By  such  a  government,  the  Roman 
people  secured  political  equality,  and  perhaps  as  much  political 
freedom  as  was  possible  without  representative  institutions. 

Improvement  of  the  Roman  Law. — It  was  also  during  this 
time  that  the  Romans  were  developing  that  remarkable  sys- 
tem of  law  which  surpassed  that  of  any  other  ancient  people. 
The  Imsis  of  this  la\v  \v;is  Hit-  XII.  Tnhles.  Ill  curlier  limes, 
tin-  pati-irians  oiilv  possessed  leir;il  rights:  but  these  rights 
came  to  be  extended  to  the  plebeians,  and  with  every  enlarge- 


ANTONY    AND    OCTAVIUS  403 

ment  of  the  Roman  state  there  had  been  an  extension  of  civil 

rights.  As  to  his  civil  rights.  <>\vry  free  person  was  a  Roman 
citizen,  a  Latin,  or  a  foreigner.  A  Roman  citizen  had  both  the 
conubium  and  the  commercium — that  is,  he  had,  first,  the 
rights  growing  out  of  the  family  organization,  such  as  the  pa- 
ternal power  and  inheritance,  and,  second,  the  rights  growing 
out  of  commercial  transactions,  such  as  property  and  contract. 
A  Latin  had  only  the  commercium;  l  while  the  foreigners  (in- 
cluding the  Italian  allies)  had  at  first  no  rights  under  the  Ro- 
man law.  During  this  time,  however,  the  rights  of  citizens 
and  of  Latins  were  continually  being  extended.  But  more  than 
this,  the  rights  of  all  foreigners  in  Italy  came  to  be  protected 
by  a  special  praetor  (prcetor  peregrinus).  Under  this  new 
praetor  there  was  gradually  developed  a  new  body  of  law,  called 
the  jus  gentium,  a  law  common  to  the  nations  of  Italy  which 
applied  to  those  whose  rights  were  not  protected  by  the  old 
XII.  Tables.  After  the  "Social  war"  all  the  inhabitants 
of  Italy  were  admitted  to  the  full  rights  of  citizenship;  and 
the  jus  gentium  came  to  be  extended  so  as  to  apply  to  all 
provincials  whose  rights  could  not  otherwise  be  secured.  In 
this  way,  the  Romans  developed  a  system  of  law  by  which 
every  free  person  in  the  Roman  world  could  have  his  civil 
rights  protected,  in  some  way  or  other,  in  a  court  of  justice. 

Advancement  in  Literature. — Another  evidence  of  the 
progress  of  the  Romans  during  the  period  of  the  civil  wars  is 
seen  in  their  literature.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  influence 
of  Hellenism  became  very  marked,  and  that  under  this  influ- 
ence Rome  began  to  produce  writers  whose  names  belong  to  the 
literature  of  the  world.  Caesar  wrote  his  "  Commentaries  on 
the  Gallic  War,"  which  is  a  fine  specimen  of  clear  historical 
narrative.  Sallust  wrote  a  history  of  the  Jugurthine  war  and 
an  account  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  which  give  us  graphic 
and  vigorous  descriptions  of  these  events.  Lucre'tius  wrote  a 

»Thls  applies  to  the  later  Latinitas,  after  this  franchise  was  extended 
beyond  th«  limits  of  Latium  to  the  Latin  colonies  throughout  Italy. 


404 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


great  poem  "  On  the  Nature  of  Things,"  which  expounds  the 
Epicurean  theory  of  the  universe  and  reveals  powers  of  de- 
scription and  imagination  rarely  equaled  by  any  other  poet, 
ancient  or  modern.  Catullus  wrote  lyric  poems  of  exquisite 
grace  and  beauty.  Cicero  was  the  most  learned  and  prolific 
writer  of  the  age ;  his  orations,  letters,  rhetorical  and  philosoph- 
ical essays  furnish  the  best  models  of  classic  style,  and  have 
given  him  a  place  among  the  great  prose  writers  of  the  world. 
Progress  in  Architecture. — That  the  Romans  were  also  im- 
proving in  their  culture  and  taste  is  shown  by  the  new  and 
splendid  buildings  which  were  erected  during  this  period. 

While  some  public  build- 
ings were  destroyed  by 
the  riots  in  the  city,  they 
were  replaced  by  finer 
and  more  durable  struc- 
tures. Many  new  tem- 
ples were  built — temples 
to  Hercules,  to  Minerva, 
to  Fortune,  to  Concord, 
to  Honor  and  Virtue. 
There  were  new  basilicas, 
or  halls  of  justice,  the 
most  notable  being  the 
Basilica  Julia,  which  was 
commenced  by  'Julius 
Caesar.  A  new  forum,  the 
Forum  Julii,  was  also 
laid  out  by  Caesar,  and  a  new  theater  was  constructed  by  Pom- 
pey.  The  great  national  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  which 
was  burned  during  the  civil  war  of  Marius  and  Sulla,  was  re- 
stored with  great  magnificence  by  Sulla,  who  adorned  it  with 
the  columns  of  the  temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  brought  from 
.\:ln-n>.  It  \V,H  «iuriM'_r  ilii-  period  thai  ibe  triumphal  arches 
were  first  erected,  and  became  a  distinctive  feature  of  Roman 


TEMPLE  OF  FORTUNE 


ANTONY   AND    OCTAV1US 


405 


architecture.  With  the  exception  of  the  use  of  the  arch,  the 
general  features  of  Ifoinan  architecture  show  the  strong  influ- 
ence of  Greek  ideas — especially  in  the  construction  of  temples, 
and  in  the  use  of  columns,  which  the  Komans  generally  sur- 
mounted with  the  Corinthian  capitals  (p.  136). 

Roman  Education. — The  influence  of  Hellenism  is  also  seen 
in  the  increasing  attention  which  the  Komans  paid  to  educa- 
tion. Roman  education,  like  that  of  the  Greeks,  was  intended 
to  develop  all  the  mental  powers,  and  to  train  the  young 
man  for  public  life.  Children — 
both  boys  and  girls — began  to  attend 
school  at  six  or  seven  years  of  age. 
The  elementary  studies  were  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic.  The  chil- 
dren were  taught  to  write  from  a 
copy  set  upon  their  tablets,  and  to 
cipher  by  means  of  the  counting 
board  (abacus)  and  counters  (cal- 
culi}. The  higher  education  com- 
prised what  were  called  the  liberal 
arts  (artes  liberales),  including  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages,  composi- 
tion and  oratory,  and  mental  and 

moral  philosophy.  An  important  part  of  education  consisted 
in  public  recitals  and  declamations  which  were  intended  to 
train  young  men  for  the  forum,  and  were  often  held  in  the 
temples. 

Decay  of  Religion  and  Morals. — While  the  Romans,  during 
tin's  period,  showed  many  evidences  of  progress  in  their  laws, 
their  literature,  and  their  art,  they  were  evidently  declining  in 
their  religious  and  moral  sense.  Their  religion  was  diluted 
more  and  more  with  Oriental  superstitions  and  degrading  cere- 
monies. In  their  moral  life  they  were  suffering  from  the  ef- 
fects of  their  conquests,  which  had  brought  wealth  and  the 
passion  for  luxury  and  display.  Ambition  and  avarice  tended 


BOY  WITH  CALCULATING 
BOARD 


406  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

to  corrupt  the  life  of  the  Eoman  people.  The  only  remedy 
for  this  condition  of  religious  and  moral  decay  was  found  in 
the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  which,  however,  appealed  only 
to  the  more  educated  classes. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  RISE  OF  ANTONY  AND  OCTAVIUS. — The  Confusion  after 
Caesar's  Death. — The  Elevation  of  Antony. — The  Appearance  of 
Octavius. — Cicero's     Attack    upon    Antony. — Formation    of    the 
Second    Triumvirate. — War    against    the    Liberators;     Battle    of 
Philippi. 

II.  CIVIL  WAR  BETWEEN  ANTONY  AND  OCTAVIUS. — New  Division 
of  the  Provinces. — Octavius  in  the  West. — Antony  in  the  East. — 
Rupture  between  Antony  and  Octavius. — Battle  of  Actium. 

III.  REVIEW   OF   THE    PERIOD   OF   THE   CIVIL    WARS. — Political 
Progress  at  Rome. — Improvement  of  the  Roman  Law. — Advance- 
ment in  Literature. — Progress  in  Architecture. — Roman  Educa- 
tion.— Decay  of  Religion  and  Morals. 

REFERENCES   FOR   READING 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  48,  "Octavius  and  Antony"  (18). * 
-  Empire,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  25,  "Cicero  and  the  Philippics";   pp. 
274,275  (character  of  Antony)   (18). 

Pelham,  Bk.  V.,  Ch.  2,  "Provisional  Government  of  the  Trium- 
virate" (18). 

Taylor,  Ch.  16,  "The  Struggle  for  the  Crown"  (22). 

Abbott,  Ch.  7,  "The  Period  of  Transition"  (22). 

Smith,  Wm.,  Smaller  History,  Chs.  36,  37,  "From  the  Death  of 
Caesar    ...     to  the  Battle  of  Actium"  (18). 

Seeley,  Essay,  "The  Great  Roman  Revolution"  (18). 

Morey,    Roman    Law,    pp.    72-78,    "Improvement    of    the   Roman 
Law"  (22). 

Shakespeare,  "Antony  and  Cleopatra." 

Collins,  Cicero,  Ch.  9,  "Cicero's  Correspondence'*  (27). 

Plutarch,  "Antony,"  "Brutus"   (26). 

irThe  figure  in  pnrenthesls  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fulier  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  IV.    THE  ROMAN  WORLD  OTDER  THE  EMPIRE 
(31  B,  0-395  A.  D,) 


CHAPTER    XXVIII 

THE    EMPIRE    UNDER    AUGUSTUS    (31  B.  c.— 14  A.  D.) 

I.     THE  NEW  IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT 

The  Policy  of  Augustus. — There  was  no  other  man  so  well 
fitted  to  put  the  new  monarchy  into  an  attractive  form  as  Octa- 
vius,  whom  we  may  now  call  by  his  official  title  of  Augustus. 
We  have  been  accustomed  to  think  of  this  man  as  merely  a 
shrewd  politician.  But  when  we  contrast  the  distracted  con- 
dition of  Rome  during  the  last  hundred  years  with  the  peace 
and  prosperity  which  he  brought  with  him,  we  shall  be  inclined 
to  look  upon  him  as  a  wise  and  successful  statesman.  His 
whole  policy  was  a  policy  of  conciliation.  He  wished  to  wipe 
out  the  hatreds  of  the  civil  war.  He  regarded  himself  as  the 
chief  of  no  party,  but  as  the  head  of  the  whole  state.  He  tried 
to  reconcile  the  conservative  and  the  progressive  men  of  his 
time.  All  the  cherished  forms  of  the  republic  he  therefore  pre- 
served; and  he  exercised  his  powers  under  titles  which  were 
not  hateful  to  the  senate  or  the  people. 

Titles  and  Powers  of  Augustus. — Soon  after  returning  to 
Rome,  Augustus  resigned  the  powers  which  he  had  hitherto 
exercised,  giving  "  back  the  commonwealth  into  the  hands  of 
the  senate  and  the  people"  (27  B.  c.).  The  first  official  title 
which  he  then  received  was  the  surname  Augustus,  bestowed 

407 


408 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


by  the  senate  in  recognition  of  his  dignity  and  his  services  to 
the  state.  He  then  received  the  proconsular  power  (imperium 
proconsulare)  over  all  the  frontier  provinces,  or  those  which  re- 
quired the  presence  of  an  army.  He  had  also  conferred  upon 

himself  the  tribunician 
power  (tribunicia  potestas), 
by  which  he  became  the 
protector  of  the  people.  He 
moreover  was  made  pontifex 
maximus,  and  received  the 
title  of  Pater  Patrice.  Al- 
though Augustus  did  not  re- 
ceive the  permanent  titles 
of  consul  and  censor,  he 
occasionally  assumed,  or  had 
temporarily  assigned  t  o 
himself,  the  duties  of  these 
offices.  He  still  retained  the 
title  of  Imperator,  which 
gave  him  the  command  of 
the  army.  But  the  title 
which  Augustus  chose  to  indicate  his  real  position  was  that 
of  Princeps  Civilatis,  or  "  the  first  citizen  of  the  state."  The 
new  "  prince  "  thus  desired  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  magistrate 
rather  than  a  monarch — a  citizen  who  had  received  a  trust 
rather  than  a  ruler  governing  in  his  'own  name. 

Augustus  and  the  Senate. — Augustus  showed  his  concilia- 
tory policy  in  fixing  the  position  which  the  senate  was  to  as- 
sume in  the  new  government.  He  did  not  adopt  fully  the  plan 
either  of  Sulla  or  of  Julius  Caesar;  but  reconciled  as  far  as  pos- 
sible their  different  ideas.  lie  restored  to  the  senate  the  dig- 
nity which  it  had  in  the  time  of  Sulla.  He  did  this  by  exclud- 
ing ilx1  provincials  and  freedmen  whom  Caesar  had  introduced 
into  it,  and  by  reducing  its  number  from  nine  hundred  to  six 
hundred  members.  But  still  he  did  not  confer  upon  it  the 


THE  EMPEROR  AUGUSTUS 


THK  UMPIRE  UNDKIJ  .\r<;rsTUS 

great  legislative  power  which  Sulla  intended  it  should  have; 
lie  rather  made  it  a  kind  of  advisory  body,  accord  in, ir  to  I  'a-sar's 
idea.  In  theory  the  senate  was  to  assist  the  emperor  in  mat- 
ters of  legislation,  and  hence  the  new  government  is  sometimes 
called  a  "  dyarchy  ";  but  in  fact  the  senate  was  simply  to  ap- 
prove the  proposals  which  the  emperor  submitted  to  it. 

The  Assemblies  of  the  People. — Augustus  did  not  formally 
take  away  from  the  popular  assemblies  their  legislative  power, 
but  occasionally  submitted  to  them  laws  for  their  approval. 
This  was,  however,  hardly  more  than  a  discreet  concession  to 
custom.    The  people  in  their  present  unwieldy  assemblies,  the 
emperor  did  not  regard  as  able  to  decide  upon  important  mat-  * 
ters  of  state.    Their  duties  were  therefore  practically  restricted   '•, 
to  the  election  of  the  magistrates,  whose  names  he  usually  pre-  / 
sented  to  them. 

The  Bepublican  Magistrates. — In  accordance  with  his  gen- 
eral policy  Augustus  did  not  interfere  with  the  old  republican 
offices,  but  allowed  them  to  remain  as  undisturbed  as  possible. 
The  consuls,  praetors,  quaestors,  and  other  officers  continued  to 
be  elected  just  as  they  had  been  before.  But  the  emperor  did 
not  generally  use  these  magistrates  to  carry  out  the  details  of 
his  administration.  This  was  performed  by  other  officers 
appointed  by  himself.  The  position  of  the  old  republican  j 
magistrates  was  rather  one  of  honor  than  one  of  executive 
responsibility. 

The  Imperial  Army. — While  the  emperor  knew  that  his 
power  must  have  some  military  support,  he  was  careful  not  to 
make  the  army  a  burden  to  the  people.  He  therefore,  reduced 
the  number  of  legions  from  fifty  to  twenty-five.  As  each 
legion  contained  not  more  than  six  thousand  men,  the  whole 
army  did  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  soldiers. 
These  legions  were  distributed  through  the  frontier  provinces; 
the  inner  provinces  and  Italy  were  thus  not  burdened  by  the 
quartering  of  troops.  To  support  the  imperial  authority  at 
home,  and  to  maintain  public  order,  Augustus  organized  a 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 24 


410 


THE    ROMAN   WORLD 


body  of  nine  thousand  men  called  the  "  praetorian  guard," 
which  force  was  stationed  at  different  points  outside  of  Rome. 

II.    THE  IMPERIAL  ADMINISTRATION 

The  Administration  of  Rome. — The  whole  empire  may  be 
regarded  as  made  up  of  three  parts — Rome,  Italy,  and  the 

provinces.  We  are  now  to  look  at 
the  improvements  which  Augustus 
made  in  these  three  spheres  of 
administration.  We  have  read 
enough  of  the  distracted  condition 
of  the  Roman  city  during  the  last 
hundred  years  to  see  the  need  of 
some  improvement.  Augustus  met 
this  need  by  creating  certain  new 
officers  to  keep  the  city  under  bet- 
ter control.  He  established  a  city 
police  under  the  charge  of  a  chief 
(jtnrfcctus  urbi),  to  preserve  order 
and  prevent  the  scenes  of  violence 
which  had  been  of  such  frequent 
occurrence.  He  created  a  fire  and 
detective  department  under  the  charge  of  another  chief  (prce- 
fectus  vigilum),  to  have  jurisdiction  over  all  incendiaries, 
burglars,  and  other  night-prowlers.  He  placed  the  grain  sup- 
ply under  a  regular  officer  (prcefectus  annonce)  who  was  to 
superintend  the  transportation  of  grain  from  Egypt,  and  was 
held  responsible  for  its  proper  distribution.  Moreover,  he 
broke  up  the  "  secret  clubs  "  which  had  been  hotbeds  of  dis- 
order, and  substituted  in  their  place  more  orderly  societies  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  government.  For  administrative 
purposes  the  city  was  divided  into  fourteen  districts,  or  wards. 
By  these  arrangements,  life  and  property  became  more  secure, 
and  the  populace  became  more  orderly  and  law-abiding. 


PRAETORIAN  GUARDS 


TillO     KMIMKI*:    IM)K11    AUGUSTUS 


411 


The  Administration  of  Italy. — Italy  Was  now  extended  to 
the  Alps,  the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  having  lately  been 
joined  to  the  peninsula.  The  whole  of  Italy  was  divided  by 


ROME  UNDER  AUGUSTUS 

The  "Regions"  of  Augustus:  I.,  Porta  Capena  ;  II.,  Caelimontium  ;  III.,  Isis 
et  Serapis  ;  IV.,  Templum  Pacis ;  V.,  Esquila? ;  VI.,  Alta  Semita ;  VII., 
Via  Lata ;  VIII.,  Forum  Romanuin  ;  IX.,  Circus  Flaminius ;  X.,  Pala- 
tium;  XI.,  Circus  Maximus ;  XII.,  Piscina  Publica ;  XIII.,  Aventinus ; 
XIV.,  Trans  Tiberim. 

Chief  Buildings:  3,  Arx ;  2,  Capitolium  ;  3,  Forum  Romanum  ;  4,  Basilica 
Julia;  5,  Curia  (senate  house)  ;  6,  Forum  of  Julius;  7,  Forum  of  Augus- 
tus ;  8,  Palace  of  the  Caesars :  9,  Forum  Boarium  ;  10,  Cloaca  Maxima  ; 
11,  Circus  Flaminius:  12,  Portico  of  Pompey  ;  13,  Theater  of  Pompey  ; 
14,  Saepta  Julia  (voting  booths)  ;  15,  Baths  of  Agrippa  ;  16,  Pantheon; 
17,  Solarium  (obelisk)  ;  18,  Mausoleum  of  Augustus;  19,  Circus  Maxi- 
mus ;  20,  Tomb  of  Scipio ;  21,  Temple  of  Mars. 


Augustus  into  eleven  "regions,"  or  administrative  districts. 
In  order  to  maintain  the  splendid  system  of  roads  which  had 
oeen  constructed  during  the  republican  period,  the  emperor 
appointed  a  superintendent  of  highways  (curator  viarum)  to 
keep  them  in  repair.  He  also  established  a  post  system  by 


4:12  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

which  the  different  "parts  of  the  peninsula  could  be  kept  in 
communication  with  one  another.  He  suppressed  brigandage 
by  establishing  military  patrols  in  the  dangerous  districts.  It 
was  his  policy  to  encourage  everywhere  the  growth  of  a  healthy 
and  vigorous  municipal  life.  To  relieve  the  poverty  of  Italy 
he  continued  the  plan  of  Julius  Caesar  in  sending  out  colonies 
into  the  provinces,  where  there  were  better  opportunities  to 
make  a  living. 

The  Administration  of  the  Provinces. — During  the  reign  of 
Augustus  the  number  of  provinces  was  increased  by  taking  in 
the  outlying  territory  south  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  The 
new  frontier  provinces  were  Rhaetia,  Nor'icum,  Pannonia,  and 
Mcesia.  The  provinces  were  not  only  increased  in  number,  but 
were  thoroughly  reorganized.  They  were  first  divided  into  two 
groups, — the  senatorial,  or  those  which  remained  under  the 
control  of  the  senate;  and  the  imperial,  or  those  which  passed 
under  the  control  of  the  emperor.  The  latter  were  generally  on 
the  frontiers,  and  required  the  presence  of  an  army  and  a  mili- 
tary governor.  The_governgrs  of  the  imperial  provinces  were 
lieutenants  (lega'ti]  of  the  emperor.  Appointed  by  him,  and 
strictly  responsible  to  him,  they  were  no  longer  permitted  to 
prey  upon  their  subjects,  but  were  obliged  to  rule  in  the  name 
of  the  emperor,  and  for  the  welfare  of  the  people.  The  sena- 
torial provinces,  on  the  other  hand,  were  still  under  the  con- 
trol of  proconsuls  and  proprietors  appointed  by  the  senate.  But 
the  condition  of  these  provinces  was  also  greatly  improved. 
The  establishment  of  the  new  government  thus  proved  to  be  £ 
great  benefit  to  the  provincials.  Their  property  became  more 
secure,  their  commerce  revived,  their  cities  became  prosperous, 
and  their  lives  were  made  more  tolerable. 

The  Finances  of  the  Empire. — With  the  division  of  the 
provinces,  the  administration  of  Hie  finances  was  also  divided 
between  the  senate  and  the  emperor.  The  revenues  of  the 
senatorial  provinces  went  into  the  treasury  of  the  senate,  or 
tli»'  (ITU  riii  in  .-  while  those  of  the  imperial  provinces  passed  into 


THE    EMPIRE    UNDER   AUGUSTUS  413 

the  treasury  of  the  emperor,  or  the  fiscus.  The  old  wretched 
system  of  farming  the  revenues,  which  had  disgraced  the  re- 
public and  impoverished  the  provincials,  was  reformed.  The 
collection  of  the  taxes  in  the  senatorial  as  well  as  the  imperial 
provinces  was  placed  in  the  charge  of  imperial  officers.  It  was 
not  long  before  the  cities  themselves  were  allowed  to  raise  by 
their  own  officers  the  taxes  due  to  the  Roman  government.  Au- 
gustus also  laid  the  foundation  of  a  sound  financial  system  by 
making  careful  estimates  of  the  revenues  and  expenditures  of 
the  state;  and  by  raising  and  expending  the  public  money  in 
the  most  economical  and  least  burdensome  manner. 

The  Frontiers  of  the  Empire. — By  the  wars  of  Augustus, 
the  boundaries  of  the  empire  were  extended,  generally  speak- 
ing, to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  on  the  north,  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  west,  to  the  desert  of  Africa  on  the  south,  and 
nearly  to  the  Euphrates  on  tho  east.  The  only  two  great  fron- 
tier nations  which  threatened  to  disturb  the  peace  of  Rome 
wore  the  Parthians  on  the  east  and  the  Germans  on  the  north. 
The  Parthians  still  retained  the  standards  lost  by  Crassus;  but 
Augustus  by  his  skillful  diplomacy  was  able  to  recover  them 
without  a  battle.  He  abandoned,  however,  all  design  of  con- 
quering that  Eastern  people.  But  his  eyes  looked  longingly  to 
the  country  of  the  Germans.  He  invaded  their  territory;  and 
after  a  temporary  success  his  general,  Varus,  was  slain  and 
three  Roman  legions  were  utterly  destroyed  by  the  great  Ger- 
man chieftain,  Arminius,  in  the  Teutoburg  forest  (9  A.  D.). 
The  attempt  to  conquer  Germany  thus  proved  a  failure.  The 
frontiers  remained  for  many  years  where  they  were  fixed  by 
Augustus;  and  he  advised  his  successors  to  govern  well  the  ter- 
ritory which  he  left  to  them  rather  than  to  increase  its  limits. 

III.     THE  AGE  or  AUGUSTUS 

The  Advisers  of  Augustus. — The  remarkable  prosperity 
that  attended  the  reign  of  Augustus  has  caused  this  age  to  be 


414 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


called  by  his  name.  The  glory  of  this  period  is  largely  due 
to  the  wise  policy  of  Augustus  himself;  but  in  his  work  he 
was  greatly  assisted  by  two  men  whose  names  are  closely  linked 
to  his  own.  These  men  were  Agrippa  and  Maece'nas. 

Agrippa  had  been  from  boyhood  one  of  the  most  intimate 
friends  of  Augustus,  and  during  the  trying  times  of  the  later 
republic  had  constantly  aided  him  by  his  counsel  and  his  sword. 
The  victories  of  Augustus  before  and  after  he  came  to  power 

were  largely  due  to  this 
able  general.  By  his  ar- 
tistic ability  Agrippa  also 
contributed  much  to  the 
architectural  splendor  of 
Rome. 

The  man  who  shared 
with  Agrippa  the  favor 
and  confidence  of  Augus- 
tus was  Maecenas,  a  wise 
statesman  and  patron  of 
literature.  It  was  by 
the  advice  of  Macenas 
that  many  of  the  impor- 
tant reforms  of  Augustus 
were  adopted  and  carried 
out.  But  the  greatest 
honor  is  due  to  Maecenas 

for  encouraging  those  men  whose  writings  made  this  period 
one  of  the  "golden  ages"  of  the  world's  literature.  It  was 
chiefly  the  encouragement  given  to  architecture  and  literature 
which  made  the  reign  of  Augustus  an  epoch  in  civilization. 

Encouragement  to  Architecture. — It  is  said  that  Augustus 
boasted  that  he  "  found  Rome  of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble." 
He  restored  many  of  the  temples  and  <>tli"i  buildings  which 
had  either  fallen  into  decay  or  been  destroyed  during  the  riots 
of  the  civil  war.  On  the  Palatine  hill  he  began  the  constmc- 


M^ECENAS 


THE    EMPIRE    UNDER   AUGUSTUS 


415 


tion  of  the  great  imperial  palace,  which  became  the  magnif- 
icent home  of  the  Caesars.  He  built  a  new  temple  of  Vesta, 
where  the  sacred  fire  of  the  city  was  kept  burning.  He  erected 
a  new  temple  to  Apollo,  to  which  was  attached  a  library  of 
Greek  and  Latin  authors;  also  temples  to  Jupiter  Tonans  and 
to  the  divine  Julius.  One  of  the  noblest  and  most  useful 


THE  PANTHEON  (Restoration) 

of  the  public  works  of  the  emperor  was  the  new  Forum  of 
Augustus,  near  the  old  Roman  Forum  and  the  Forum  of  Julius. 
In  this  new  forum  was  erected  the  temple  of  Mars  the  Aven- 
ger (Mars  Ultor),  which  Augustus  built  to  commemorate  the 
war  by  which  he  had  avenged  the  death  of  Caesar.  We  must 
not  forget  to  notice  the  massive  Pantheon,  the  temple  of  all 
the  gods,  which  is  to-day  the  best  preserved  monument  of  the 
Augustan  period.  This  was  built  by  Agrippa,  in  the  early  part 
of  Augustus's  reign  (27  B.  c.),  but  was  altered  to  the  form 
shown  above  by  the  emperor  Ha'drian  (second  century  A.  D.). 
Patronage  of  Literature. — But  more  splendid  and  enduring 
than  these  temples  of  marble  were  the  works  of  literature  which 
this  age  produced.  At  this  time  was  written  Vergil's  "  JEneid" 


416 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


which  is  one  of  the  greatest  epic  poems  of  the  world.  It  was 
then  that  the  "  Odes  "  of  Horace  were  composed,  the  grace 
and  rhythm  of  which  are  unsurpassed.  Then,  too,  were  writ- 
ten the  elegies  of  Tibul'lus,  Proper'tius,  and  Ov'id.  Greatest 
among  the  prose  writers  of  this  time  was  Livy,  whose  "  pic- 
tured pages"  tell  of  the  miraculous  origin  of  Rome,  and  her 
great  achievements  in  war  and  in  peace.  During  this  time  also 
flourished  certain  Greek  writers  whose  works  are  famous. 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  wrote  a  book  on  the  antiquities  of 
Rome,  and  tried  to  reconcile  his  countrymen  to  the  Roman 
sway.  Strabo,  the  geographer,  described  the  subject  lands  of 
Rome  in  the  Augustan  age.  The  whole  literature  of  this  period 
was  inspired  with  a  growing  spirit  of  patriotism  and  an  appre- 
ciation of  Rome  as  the  great  ruler  of  the  world. 

Religious  and  Social  Reforms. — With  his  encouragement  of 
art  and  literature  Augustus  also  tried  to  improve  the  religious 
and  moral  condition  of  the  people.  The  old  religion  was  fall- 
ing into  decay.  With  the  restoration  of  the  old  temples,  he 

hoped  to  bring  the  people 
back  to  the  worship  of  the 
ancient  gods.  The  worship 
of  Juno,  which  had  been 
neglected,  was  restored,  and 
assigned  to  the  care  of  his 
wife,  Livia,  as  the  represent- 
ative of  the  matrons  of 
Rome.  Augustus  tried  to 
purify  the  Roman  religion 
by  discouraging  the  intro- 
duction of  the  foreign  dei- 
ties whose  worship  was  cor- 
rupt. He  believed  that  even 
a  great  Roman  had  better  be 
worshiped  than  the  degenerate  gods  and  goddesses  of  Syria 
and  Egypt;  and  so  the  divine  Julius  was  added  to  the  number 


LIVIA,  WIFE  OF  AUGUSTUS 


THE    EMPIRE    UM)i:it    At  (JUSTUS  417 

of  the  Roman  gods.  He  did  not  favor  the  Jewish  religion; 
and  Christianity  had  not  yet  been  pivm-hnl  a  I  Koine. 

With  the  attempt  to  restore  the  old  Roman  religion,  he  also 
wished  to  revive  the  old  morality  and  simple  life  of  the  past. 
He  himself  disdained  luxurious  living  and  foreign  fashions. 
fir  tried  to  improve  the  lax  customs  which  prevailed  in  respect 
to  marriage  and  divorce,  and  to  restrain  the  vices  which  were 
destroying  the  population  of  Rome.  But  it  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  these  laudable  attempts  of  Augustus  produced  any 
real  results  upon  either  the  religious  or  the  moral  life  of  the 
Roman  people. 

Death  and  Character  of  Augustus.  —  Augustus  lived  to  the 
age  of  seventy-five;  and  his  reign  covered  a  period  of  forty-five 
years.  During  this  time  he  had  been  performing  "  the  difficult 
part  of  ruling  without  appearing  to  rule,  of  being  at  once  the 
autocrat  of  the  civilized  world  and  the  first  citizen  of  a  free 
commonwealth."  His  last  words  are  said  to  have  been,  "  Have 
I  not  played  my  part  well  ?  "  But  it  is  not  necessary  for  us  to 
suppose  that  Augustus  was  a  mere  actor.  The  part  which  he 
had  to  perform  in  restoring  peace  to  the  world  was  a  great  and 
difficult  task.  In  the  midst  of  conflicting  views  which  had 
distracted  the  republic  for  a  century,  he  was  called  upon  to  per- 
form a  work  of  reconciliation.  And  it  is  doubtful  whether  any 
political  leader  ever  performed  such  a  work  with  greater  suc- 
cess. When  he  became  the  supreme  ruler  of  Rome  he  was  fully 
equal  to  the  place,  and  brought  order  out  of  confusion.  He 
was  content  with  the  substance  of  power  and  indifferent  to  its 
form.  Not  so  great  as  Julius  Caesar,  he  was  yet  more  success- 
ful. He  was  one  of  the  greatest  examples  of  what  we  may  call 
the  "  conservative  reformer,"  a  man  who  accomplishes  the  work 
of  regeneration  without  destroying  existing  institutions. 


SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  NEW  IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT.  —  The  Policy  of  Augustus.  — 
Titles  and  Powers  of  Augustus.  —  Augustus  and   the   Senate.  — 


TVTAF    N*o. 


418 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    T1IK    KAIJLY     HMI'IUU  419 

The  Assemblies  of  the  People. — The  Republican  Magistrates. — 
The  Imperial  Army. 

II.  THE    IMPERIAL    ADMINISTRATION. — The    Administration    of 
Home. — The  Administration  of  Italy. — The  Administration  of  the 
Provinces. — The  Finance's  of  the  Empire. — The  Frontiers  of  the 
Empire. 

III.  THE  AGE  OF  AUGUSTUS. — The  Advisers  of  Augustus.-    Kn- 
eouragement    to    Architecture. — Patronage    of    Literature. — Re- 
ligious  and  Social  Reforms. — Death  and  Character  of  Augustus. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Capes,  Early  Empire,  Ch.  1,  "Augustus"   (18).1 

Pelham,   Bk.   V.,  Ch.  2,  "Foundation   of  the  Principate"    (18). 

Bury,  Roman  Empire,  Ch.  2,  "The  Principate";  Chs.  (>,  7,  "Provin- 
cial Administration";  Ch.  10,  "Rome  under  Augustus;  His 
Buildings";  Ch.  11,  "Literature  of  the  Augustan  Age"  (18). 

Taylor,  Ch.  18,  "The  Princeps  and  the  Government"   (22). 

Abbott,  Ch.  12,  "The  Establishment  of  the  Empire"  (22). 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  51,  "The  Government  as  Organized 

by  Augustus"  (18). 

-  Empire,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  31,  "The  Imperial  Authority";  Ch.  "3, 
"The  Imperial  Administration";  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  34,  "Organiza- 
tion of  the  Provinces  by  Augustus"  (18). 

Lanciani,  Ruins,  pp.  138-144,  302-307  (Augustus  as  a  builder)  (20). 

Greenidge,  Public  Life,  Ch.  10,  "The  Principate";  Ch.  11,  "Italy 
and  the  Provinces  under  the  Empire";  pp.  440-444  (the  wor- 
ship of  the  emperor)  (22). 

Schuckburgh,  Augustus,  pp.  265-293  (character  of  Augustus) 
(27). 

Translations  and  Reprints,  Vol.  IV.,  No.  1,  "Monumentum  Ancy- 
ranum"  (Deeds  of  Augustus)  (25). 


CHAPTER    XXIX 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EARLY  EMPIRE 

I.     THE  JULIAN  EMPERORS  (14-69  A.  D.) 

Tiberius  and  Caligula. — We  shall  now  see  that  the  imperial 
system  established  by  Augustus  was  put  to  a  severe  test  by  the 
character  of  the  men  who  immediately  followed  him.  These 

'The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


rulers  were  related  to  the  family  of  Julius  and  Augustus ;  but 
they  had  neither  the  great  ability  of  Julius  nor  the  adroit 
skill  of  Augustus.  Of  the  first  two  of  these  emperors — Ti- 
berius and  Calig'ula — the  one  is  usually  characterized  as  a 
tyrant,  and  the  other  as  a  maniac. 

Tiberius  (14-37  A.  D.)  was  the  adopted  stepson  of  Augustus. 
He  was  an  able  general,  and  had  had  considerable  experience 
as  an  administrator.  But  in  his  personal  character  he  pre- 
sented a  striking  contrast  to  his 
predecessor.  Instead  of  being  gen- 
erous and  conciliatory  like  Au- 
gustus, he  was  sour  and  suspicious, 
and  often  severe  and  cruel  in  his 
treatment  of  others.  He  was,  on 
this  account,  a  very  unpopular 
ruler.  Even  at  his  accession,  the 
Roman  legions  on  the  Ehine  and 
Danube  were  not  disposed  to  ac- 
cept his  authority.  But  under  the 
loyal  generals — especially  German'- 
icus,  the  nephew  of  Tiberius — they 
became  reconciled  and  made  suc- 
cessful campaigns  against  the 
frontier  nations.  It  is  true  that  Tiberius  tried  to  follow  in 
general  the  policy  of  Augustus;  but  surrounded,  as  he  was, 
by  those  whom  he  could  not  trust,  he  sought  to  strengthen 
his  position  by  severe  and  tyrannical  methods.  His  admin- 
istration was  at  first  vigorous,  and  the  people  prospered.  He 
maintained  the  frontier,  and  managed  the  finances  with  skill 
and  economy;  and  he  also  protected  the  provinces  from  the 
rapacity  of  the  governors.  But  his  life  at  Rome  was  embit- 
tered by  court  jealousies  and  intrigues.  He  retired  at  last 
to  the  island  of  Capri  in  the  bay  of  Naples,  leaving  the  con- 
trol of  affairs  to  his  favorite  adviser  Seja'nus,  the  commander 
of  the  praetorian  guards.  Sejanus  proved  to  be  a  more  cruel 


TIBERIUS 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE 


421 


and  unscrupulous  despot  than  Tiberius;  and  the  last  part 
of  this  reign  was  to  a  large  extent  filled  with  his  wickedness 
and  crimes. 

Tiberius  made  no  provision  for  a  successor.  The  senate, 
therefore,  chose  as  emperor  a  young  favorite  of  the  army,  Gaius 
Caesar,  the  son  of  the  famous  general  Germanicus,  who  was 
a  descendant  of  Augustus.  Gaius 
(37-41  A.  n.)  is  usually  known  as 
Caligula  ("  Little  Boots"),  a  nick- 
name given  to  him,  when  a  boy,  by 
the  soldiers.  After  a  brief  period, 
in  which  he  showed  his  respect  for 
the  senate  and  the  people,  his 
mind,  already  diseased,  gave  way; 
and  he  indulged  in  all  the  wild 
freaks  of  an  insane  person.  Many 
strange  stories  are  told  of  this  de- 
lirious young  man,  which  should 
perhaps  excite  our  pity  quite  as 
much  as  our  condemnation.  His 
brief  reign  of  four  years  has  little  political  significance,  except 
as  showing  that  the  empire  could  endure  even  with  a  mad 
prince  on  the  throne. 

Claudius  and  Nero. — Of  the  two  remaining  princes  of  the 
Julian  line — Claudius  and  Nero — one  is  generally  known  as  a 
moral  weakling,  and  the  other  as  a  moral  monster.  Claudius 
(41-54  A.  D.)  was  the  brother  of  Germanicus,  and  was  pro- 
claimed by  the  soldiers.  Although  the  senate  did  not  consider 
him  as  a  fit  person  to  rule,  still  the  choice  of  the  soldiers  was 
ratified.  The  Roman  nobles  were  disgusted  with  the  new  em- 
peror, because  he  received  the  advice  of  freedmen  and  provin- 
cials. But  as  a  matter  of  fact  these  freedmen  were  often  edu- 
cated Greeks,  and  proved  to  be  wise  counselors  and  skilled 
administrators.  Although  Claudius  was  personally  a  weak 
and  timid  man,  he  held  before  him  the  example  of  Augustus. 


CALIGULA 


422 


THE    ROMAN   WORLD 


CLAUDIUS 


He  maintained  the  purity  of  the  senate.  He  extended  the 
franchise  to  outlying  communities.  He  abandoned  the  tyran- 
nical methods  of  Tiberius. 
He  constructed  many  public 
works  which  benefited  the  peo- 
ple; and  he  looked  after  the 
interests  of  the  provinces.  We 
may  look  upon  Claudius  per- 
sonally as  a  weakling;  but  his 
reign  was  marked  by  prudence 
and  a  wise  regard  for  the  in- 
terests of  his  subjects. 

Claudius  was  followed  by  a 
ruler  whose  career  proved  to 
be  as  disgraceful  as  that  of 
Caligula,  and  far  more  crimi- 
nal. This  ruler  was  Nero  (54-68),  a  grandson  of  Germanicus. 
He  was  proclaimed  by  the  soldiers  and  accepted  by  the  senate. 
The  early  part  of  the  reign  was  full  of  hope  and  promise. 
During  this  time  he  was  under  the 
influence  of  the  wise  philosopher 
Sen'eca,  and  the  able  commander 
of  the  prastorian  guards,  Burrhus. 
After  five  years  of  beneficent  rule 
(the  quinquennium  Neronis)  the 
young  prince  threw  aside  his 
counselors,  and  abandoned  himself 
not  to  a  diseased  mind,  like  Calig- 
ula, but  to  his  own  depraved  na- 
ture. Then  followed  a  career  of 
wickedness,  debauchery,  extortion, 
and  atrocious  cruelty  which  it 
is  not  necessary  to  describe,  but 

which  has  rendered  the  name  of  this  prince  a  synonym  of  all 
that  is  vicious  in  human  nature  and  despicable  in  a  ruler. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE  423 

The  Emperor  and  the  Empire. — If  we  would  get  a  correct 
idea  of  the  Roman  world  under  the  Julian  line,  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  the  character  of  the  emperors  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  empire.  When  we  consider  the  severe  and  tyran- 
nical methods  of  Tiberius,  the  wild  vagaries  of  Caligula,  the 
weakness  and  timidity  of  Claudius,  and  the  cruelty  and  wicked- 
ness of  Nero,  we  can  find  little  to  admire  in  the  personal 
character  of  these  princes.  But  when  we  turn  from  the  princes 
themselves  to  the  world  over  which  they  professed  to  rule,  we 
find  that  the  empire  itself  was  little  affected  by  their  pecul- 
iarities. While  the  palace  and  the  capital  may  have  presented 
scenes  of  intrigue  and  bloodshed,  the  world  in  general  was 
peaceful  and  prosperous.  This  condition  of  things  was  no 
doubt  due  to  the  thoroughness  of  the  work  done  by  the  great 
founders  of  the  empire,  Julius  and  Augustus.  The  imperial 
system,  which  had  for  its  purpose  the  welfare  of  the  people, 
was  not  overthrown.  The  empire  prospered  in  spite  of  the 
emperors.  But  it  should  be  said  that  when  the  emperors  or 
their  advisers  seriously  considered  the  needs  of  the  empire  at 
all,  they  generally  followed  the  policy  of  Augustus;  and  when 
they  were  oblivious  of  these  needs,  the  world  moved  peacefully 
on  without  their  aid. 

Monarchical  Tendencies. — So  far  as  there  were  any  actual 
changes  made  in  the  government,  they  tended  to  strengthen 
the  monarchical  power.  Such  changes  were  made  chiefly  by 
Tiberius.  In  the  first  place,  this  emperor  took  away  from  the 
assemblies  the  power  of  electing  the  magistrates,  and  trans- 
ferred this  power  to  the  senate ;  so  that  the  people  could  now 
neither  make  their  own  laws  nor  choose  their  own  officers.  In 
the  next  place,  Tiberius  changed  the  existing  law  of  treason 
(lex  maiestatis) ,  so -that  it  applied  not  only  to  offenses  against 
the  state,  but  to  offenses  against  the  emperor  himself;  and  to 
carry  out  this  law  he  instituted  a  class  of  informers  or  detect- 
ives (deJatores)  to  spy  out  the  enemies  of  the  prince.  More- 
over, to  give  a  stronger  military  support  to  his  authority,  Ti- 


424  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

berius  gathered  together  into  a  single  camp  near  Rome  the 
praetorian  guard,  which  had  hitherto  been  scattered  over  Italy. 
Finally,  there  was  growing  up  during  the  Julian  period  an 
imperial  council,  made  up  of  persons  selected  by  the  emperor, 
whom  he  could  consult  in  preference  to  the  senate.  These 
changes  were  intended  to  strengthen  the  power  of  the  prince, 
and  to  weaken  the  powers  of  the  senate  and  the  people.  It 
should  be  noticed,  however,  in  this  connection,  that  the  law 
of  high  treason  and  the  practice  of  "  delation,"  established  by 
Tiberius,  were  discouraged  especially  by  Claudius,  and  also 
by  the  other  emperors  during  the  sane  periods  of  their 
administration. 

Condition  of  the  Provinces. — Although  we  must  see  a  great 
deal  in  the  early  imperial  system  of  which  we  in  our  day  do 
not  approve,  still  the  establishment  of  the  empire  was  a  great 
benefit  to  the  Roman  provinces.  The  provincials,  speaking 
generally,  suffered  no  longer  from  the  oppression  and  extor- 
tion which  existed  under  the  old  republic.  They  were  no 
longer  plundered  to  support  an  avaricious  class  of  nobles  at 
Rome.  Even  Tiberius,  who  was  tyrannical  in  many  respects, 
was  especially  anxious  concerning  the  welfare  of  the  provinces.  ( 
Claudius,  also,  was  generous  in  extending  the  rights  of  citi- 
zenship. It  is  true  that  the  public  or  political  right  involved  in 
the  civitas  had  now  no  special  importance ;  but  it  is  also  true 
that  the  private  or  civil  rights  were  still  a  valuable  possession 
for  Roman  subjects.  During  this  time,  also,  the  provinces 
were  extended  (by  the  emperor  Claudius)  so  as  to  include 
Thrace,  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor,  Mauretania  in  Africa,  and  the 
southern  part  of  Britain. 

Public  Works. — The  encouragement  given  to  public  works 
by  Augustus  was  continued  by  his  successors,  especially  by 
Claudius.  This  emperor  constructed  the  Claudian  aqueduct, 
which  brought  water  to  the  city  of  Rome  from  a  distance  of 
forty-five  miles.  He  also  built  a  new  harbor — the  Portus 
Romanus — at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber  near  Ostia.  To  improve 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE   EARLY    KMl'lKi:          425 

the  agriculture  of  certain  districts  in  central  Italy  he  con- 
structed a  great  tunnel  to  drain  the  Fucine  lake — a  work 
which  required  the  labor  of  thirty  thousand  men  for  eleven 
years.  During  the  reign  of  Nero,  a  great  fire  occurred  at 
Rome,  which  consumed  a  large  part  of  the  city.  This  resulted 


RUINS  OF  THE  CLAUDIAN  AQUEDUCT 

in  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  on  a  more  magnificent  scale,  with 
wider  streets  and  more  splendid  edifices. 

The  Christians  at  Rome. — The  burning  of  Rome  was 
charged  by  Nero  upon  the  Christians,  in  order,  as  Tacitus 
says,  to  remove  the  burden  of  suspicion  from  himself.  This 
is  the  first  time  that  the  Christians  are  noticed  by  the  Roman 
historians.  The  new  religion  had  appeared  in  Judea  about 
half  a  century  before  this  time,  and  had  made  rapid  progress 
in  the  eastern  provinces.  As  the  Romans  were  generally  toler- 
ant of  all  religions,  there  was  at  first  no  opposition  to  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  There  was  now  a  large  community 
of  Christians  at  Rome,  made  up  of  converted  Jews  and  other 
persons  from  the  lower  classes.  They  were  despised  by  the 
upper  classes ;  and  the  fire  at  Rome  furnished  the  occasion  of 
the  first  persecution.  The  innocent  disciples  of  the  new  re- 


426 


THE    110MAN    \\OULD 


ligion  were  subjected  by  Xoro  to  the  most  revolting  tortures — 
which  alone  should  make  the  name  of  this  emperor  execrated 
by  the  human  race. 


II.     THE  FLAVIAN-  EMPERORS  (69-96  A.  D.) 

The  Disputed  Succession. — With  the  death  of  Nero  the 
Julian  line,  which  traced  its  descent  from  Julius  and  Augus- 
tus, became  extinct.  We  may  now  discover  one  great  defect  of 
the  imperial  system — that  is,  the  lack  of  any  definite  law  of 
succession.  In  theory,  the  selection  of  a  new  emperor  rested 

with  the  senate,  with  which 
he  was  supposed  to  share  his 
power.  But,  in  fact,  it  de- 
pended upon  the  army,  upon 
which  his  power  rested  for  sup- 
port. Since  the  time  of  Tibe- 
rius, the  choice  of  the  prince 
had  been  assumed  by  the  praeto- 
rian guards.  But  now  the  pro- 
vincial armies  also  claimed  the 
right  to  name  the  emperor's 
successor;  so  that  it  seemed 
evident,  as  Tacitus  says,  "that 
a  prince  could  be  made  else- 
where than  at  Rome."  But  it 

was  not  so  clear  which  of  the  armies  had  the  greatest  right 
to  make  this  choice.  Hence  we  find  different  claimants 
for  the  throne — Galba  supported  by  the  Spanish  soldiers,  ;unl 
soon  afterwards  Otho,  supported  by  the  praetorian  guards, 
Vitellius  by  the  troops  on  the  I*  hi  in-,  and  Vespa'sian  by  the 
army  in  Syria.  These  disputed  claims  led  to  a  war  of  suc- 
ii.  which  lasted  about  a  year — the  first  civil  war  which 
had  occiirn-d  within  -i  century,  or  since  the  battle  of  Actiuin. 
After  the  other  claimants  had  ruled  in  succession  for  brief 


GALBA 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    KA1ILY    EMPIRE  427 

Irnns,  Vespasian  was  finally  victorious  and  made;  liis  position 
secure, 

Vespasian  and  Titus. — With  Vespasian  (Flavins  Vespasi- 
anus;  69-79  A.  D.)  began  a  new  line  of  emperors,  known  as 
the  Flavian  line;  this  consisted  of  Vespasian  himself  and  his 
two  sons,  Titus  and  Domitian  (do-mish'i-an) .  The  rule  of 
Vespasian  and  that  of  his  older  son  Titus  were  so  nearly  alike 
and  were  so  closely  related  to  each  other  as  to  form  almost 
one  continuous  reign.  Vespasian  did  not  belong  to  any  of  the 
old  Roman  families,  but  was  born  in  one  of  the  outlying  towns 
of  Italy,  and  might  be  called  a  man  of  the  people.  He  proved 
to  be  an  able,  upright,  and  effi- 
cient prince,  and  his  judicious 
rule  brought  in  a  new  era  of 
prosperity  for  the  empire.  He  re- 
stored Rome  from  the  disorder  re- 
sulting from  the  recent  civil  war. 
By  his  economy  he  rescued  the 
treasury  from  the  bankrupt  con- 
dition into  which  it  had  been 
plunged  by  his  predecessors.  He 
constructed  new  buildings  for  the 

capital,    the    most    important    of 

, .  ,  VESPASIAN 

which  was  the  great  Colosseum, 

or  Flavian  Amphitheater.  He  appointed  good  governors  for 
the  provinces,  and  extended  the  Latin  right  to  the  people  of 
Spain.  The  only  important  disturbances  during  his  rule  were 
the 'revolt  of  Civilis,  the  governor  of  Gaul,  which  was  speedily 
put  down,  and  an  unfortunate  rebellion  of  the  Jews,  which 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Titus  (79-81  A.  D.)  had  already  been  associated  with  Ves- 
pasian in  the  government,  so  that  the  change  to  the  new  reign 
was  scarcely  noticeable.  The  new  prince  ruled  but  a  short 
time.  But  during  this  brief  period  he  followed  the  benevolent 
policy  of  his  father,  and  won  from  the  people  the  title  of  "  the 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 25 


428 


THE    ROMAN   WORLD 


TITUS 


Delight  of  Mankind."    The  story  is  told  of  him  that  one  eve- 
ning he  recalled  the  fact  that  he  had  granted  no  favor  to  any 

one  since  the  morning,  and  in 
regret  exclaimed  to  his  friends, 
"  I  have  lost  a  day."  But  the 
short  reign  of  Titus,  delightful 
as  it  was,  was  marked  by  two 
great  calamities.  One  was  a 
very  destructive  fire  which 
swept  over  the  city;  and  the 
other  was  a  terrible  eruption 
of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  which  de- 
stroyed the  cities  of  Pompe'ii 
and  Hercula'neum. 

The  Tyranny  of  Domitian. — 
The  happy  period  begun  by 
Vespasian  and  Titus  was  interrupted  by  the  exceptional  tyr- 
anny of  Domitian  (87-96  A.  D.).  The  reign  of  this  prince 
stands  out  by  itself  as  a  dark 
blot  upon  an  era  of  general  hap- 
piness and  prosperity.  Instead 
of  following  in  the  footsteps  of 
his  father  and  elder  brother,  he 
seems  to  have  taken  for  his  mod- 
els Tiberius  and  Nero.  Morose 
and  severe  by  nature,  he  became 
cruel  and  tyrannical.  He  re- 
vived the  almost  obsolete  law  of 
Tiberius  regarding  treason,  re- 
stored the  wretched  practice  of 
delation,  and  resorted  to  extor- 
tions and  confiscations.  He  per- 
secuted the  Jews  and  the  Chris- 
tians. Like  Tiberius,  he  was  suspicious  of  those  about  him  and 
lived  in  perpetual  fear  of  assassination.  His  fears  were  finally 


DOMITIAN 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE          429 

realized,  and  he  was  murdered  by  a  freedman  of  the  palace. 
The  most  important  event  of  his  reign  was  the  extension  of  the 
Roman  power  in  Britain  under  the  able  governor  and  general 
Agric'ola — which  event  paved  the  way  for  the  advance  of  civ- 
ilization in  that  province. 

Classes  of  Roman  Society. — If  we  now  look  at  the  condition 
of  society  under  the  Flavian  emperors,  we  shall  notice  that 
certain  changes  had  taken  place  since  the  time  of  the  republic. 
The  general  tendency  of  the  imperial  system  was  to  create  a 
greater  degree  of  equality  among  the  various  classes.  The 
wide  distinctions  which  existed  under  the  republic  were  break- 
ing down,  and  the  social  grades  were  merging  together.  This 
will  appear  by  considering  the  different  classes  of  the  Roman 
people : 

(1)  At  the  top  of  the  social  scale  were  the  emperor  and  the 
imperial  household.     Although  the  position  of  the  emperor 
was  becoming  more  and  more  exalted,  it  was  also  becoming 
recognized  that  the  position  could  be  held  by  a  man  of  humble 
origin,  as  in  the  case  of  Vespasian.    Nearest  the  emperor  were 
the  so-called  "  friends  of  CaBsar,"  who  made  up  his  household 
and  the  coterie  of  his  selected  guests.     These  persons  were 
chosen  from  all  classes  and  were  often  freedmen  and  provin- 
cials, whose  honored  position  depended  solely  upon  the  favor 
of  the  prince. 

(2)  Next  were  the  aristocratic  classes,  who  still  formed  a 
sort  of  nobility — the  senators  and  equites.    But  the  senatorial 
order  was  not  now  restricted,  as  formerly,  to  certain  favored 
Roman  families.     On  the  contrary,  the  senators  were  selected 
by  the  emperor  on  account  of  their  wealth,  ability,  or  influ- 
ence, and  were  chosen  from  persons  from  every  part  of  the 
empire — Rome,  Italy,  and  the  provinces.     The  equestrian  or- 
der, also,  was  becoming  less  and  less  an  exclusive  body,  and 
admission  to  it  was  a  gift  of  the  prince.     It  had  no  important 
political  privileges,  although  it  came  to  be  customary  for  the 
emperor  to  select  his  officials  from  its  members. 


430  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

(3)  The  great  body  of  the  common  people  consisted  of  the 
professional  classes,  the  lawyers,  teachers,  writers,  physicians; 
the  commercial  classes,  the  merchants,  bankers,  traders;  the 
artisan  classes,  the  smiths,  weavers,  fullers,  bakers,  etc.;  and 
the  agricultural  classes,  the  farmers  and  free  laborers.     So 
far  as  their  strictly  civil  rights  were  concerned — that  is,  the 
rights  of  person,  of  property,  of  inheritance,  of  contract,  and 
of  suing  in  a  court  of  justice — all  these  people  were  on  a  plane 
of  practical  equality  with  the  upper  classes. 

(4)  The  slaves  were,  of  course,  at  the  bottom  of  the  social 
scale,  and  were  deprived  of  civil  rights.    But  their  condition 
was  better  than  in  the  time  of  the  republic.    They  were  treated 
with  more  respect ;  their  lives  were  protected ;  and  there  were 
increased  facilities  for  manumission. 

Domestic  Life;  Houses,  Food,  Dress. — To  obtain  a  general 
idea  of  the  life  of  the  Eoman  people  under  the  empire,  we 
may  first  look  at  the  Eoman  citizen  in  his  own  home,  where  he 
ruled  as  the  head  of  his  household.  The  Romans  were  now 
beginning  to  look  upon  the  family  more  as  a  legal  than  as  a 
religious  institution.  The  formal  ceremonies  which  in  ancient 
times  had  usually  accompanied  marriage  were  often  dispensed 
with;  and  the  relation  between  husband  and  wife  was  looked 
upon  as  a  mere  civil  contract,  which  might  be  entered  into 
and  broken  by  mutual  consent.  Divorces  became  common, 
and  the  general  morals  of  society  were  corrupted.  The  home, 
especially  in  the  city,  did  not  present  the  simple  domestic  life 
of  the  ancients,  but  was  affected  by  the  general  passion  for 
luxury  and  fondness  for  display.  This  is  seen  in  the  structure 
of  the  houses,  the  preparation  of  the  food,  and  even  in  the 
character  of  the  dress. 

(1)  The  Eoman  houses  were  no  longer  the  simple  structures 
of  the  early  republic,  but  were  modeled  after  the  most  elab- 
orate houses  of  the  later  Creeks,  which  had  begun  to  sln»\v  the 
cllVci  nf  an  Oriental  taste.  The  excavations  among  the  ruins 
of  Pompeii  have  given  us  much  knowledge  of  this  domestic 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    TIIK    KAULY    RMPIRE 


431 


architecture.  The  principal  room  was  the  large  reception 
room  (atrium),  entered  from  the  street  by  a  vestibule;  it  was 
supported  by  marble  columns,  and  paved  with  mosaic ;  it  was 
lavishly  decorated  with  ivory,  gold,  and  precious  stones,  and 
adorned  with  statues  of  bronze  and  marble.  On  either  side 
of  the  atrium  were  the  library  and  the  picture  gallery,  besides 
rooms  for  conversation.  Leading  to  the  rear  was  the  peristyle, 


ROMAN  HOUSE,  SHOWING  THE  ATRIUM  IN  THE  FOREGROUND 

or  open  court,  containing  a  garden  and  fountain,  and  sur- 
rounded by  rows  of  columns.  Beyond  the  peristyle  were  the 
dining  room,  the  dormitories,  the  bathrooms,  the  kitchen, 
and  the  larder.  The  furniture  was  elaborate  and  expensive — 
carved  tables  and  chairs  of  valuable  woods,  besides  cabinets 
in  which  silver  vessels  were  displayed. 

(2)  In  the  elaborate  preparation  of  their  food  and  in  their 
costly  banquets  the  Romans  showed  great  fondness  for  display. 
Not  satisfied  with  the  simple  meals  of  their  ancestors,  they 
vied  with  one  another  in  obtaining  the  rarest  delicacies  from 


432  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  Fortunes  were  spent  upon 
single  feasts ;  and  gluttony  was  reduced  to  what  was  supposed 
to  be  a  fine  art. 

(3)  In  very  ancient  times  the  Romans  wore  but  a  single 
garment,  the  tunic,  made  of  wool.  Afterward,  the  men 
adopted  the  toga,  a  loose  garment  thrown  in  ample  folds 
about  the  person ;  and  the  women  began  to  wear  the  stola,  pat- 
terned after  the  Greek  robe,  together  with  the  palla,  or  shawl, 
large  enough  to  cover  the  whole  figure.  During  the  later  re- 
public and  under  the  empire,  the  dress  of  the  Romans  became 
more  expensive,  being  made  of  the  richer  materials  of  linen 
and  silk  imported  from  the  East,  and  more  elaborately 
trimmed ;  and  a  growing  taste  for  expensive  jewelry  and  other 
personal  ornaments  was  developed  among  the  Roman  women. 

Social  Life  and  Amusements. — The  social  enjoyment  of  the 
Romans  was  in  some  respects  like  that  of  the  Greeks,  being 
found  chiefly  outside  of  the  home.  The  Forum  was  to  Rome 
what  the  Agora  was  to  Athens,  a  center  of  public  and  social 
life.  But  the  ordinary  Roman  had  not  the  Greek  taste  for 
intellectual  companionship;  he  rather  sought  his  chief  recre- 
ation in  the  baths  and  in  the  crowds  of  the  circus,  the  theater, 
and  the  amphitheater. 

(1)  In  their  baths  the  Romans  of  the  empire  showed  their 
growing  appreciation  of  the  luxuries  of  life.  The  private 
baths  of  the  dwelling  house  no  longer  satisfied  their  needs. 
Public  baths  (thermce)  on  an  enormous  scale  were  built  by 
the  emperors.  These  contained  a  large  number  of  rooms,  sup- 
ported by  columns  of  granite  or  marble,  paved  with  mosaic, 
and  adorned  with  works  of  art.  They  included  not  only  bath- 
ing rooms,  but  gymnasia  for  exercising,  gardens  for  lounging. 
galleries  of  statues  and  paintings,  libraries  for  reading,  and 
halls  for  conversation.  The  baths  became  centers  of  social 
life,  where  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  emperor  and  the  slave, 
met  together — showing  the  democratic  spirit  of  the  life  under 
the  empire. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE  433 

(2)  The  circus  afforded  a  greater  attraction  for  the  people 
in  general.  The  most  important  circus  of  Rome  was  the 
Circus  Maximus.  It  was  an  inclosure  about  two  thousand  feet 
long  and  six  hundred  feet  wide.  Within  it  were  arranged 
seats  for  different  classes  of  citizens,  a  separate  box  being 
reserved  for  the  imperial  family.  The  games  consisted  chiefly 


RUINS  OF  THE  FLAVIAN  AMPHITHEATER 

of  chariot  races.  The  excitement  was  due  to  the  reckless  driv- 
ing of  the  charioteers,  each  striving  to  win  by  upsetting  his 
competitors.  There  were  also  athletic  sports;  running,  leap- 
ing, boxing,  wrestling,  throwing  the  quoit,  and  hurling  the 
javelin.  Sometimes  sham  battles  and  sea  fights  took  place. 

(3)  The  Romans  were  not  very  much  addicted  to  the  thea- 
ter, there  being  only  three  principal  structures  of  this  kind  at 
Rome,  those  of  Pompey,  Marcellus,  and  Balbus  (pp.  468,  469). 
The  theater  was  derived  from  the  Greeks  and  was  built  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle,  the  seats  being  apportioned,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  circus,  to  different  classes  of  persons.     The  shows 
consisted  largely  of  dramatic  exhibitions,  of  mimes,  panto- 
mimes, and  dancing. 

(4)  The  most  popular  and  characteristic  amusements  of 
the  Romans  were  the  sports  of  the  amphitheater.    This  build- 


434  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

ing  was  in  the  form  of  a  double  theater,  forming  an  entire 
circle  or  ellipse.  Such  structures  were  built  in  different  cities 
of  the  empire,  but  none  equaled  the  colossal  building  of  Ves- 
pasian, known  as  the  Colosseum.  The  sports  of  the  amphi- 
theater were  chiefly  gladiatorial  shows  and  the  combats  of 
wild  beasts.  The  amusements  of  the  Eomans  were  largely 
sensational,  and  appealed  to  the  tastes  of  the  populace.  Their 
influence  was  almost  always  bad,  and  tended  to  degrade  the 
morals  of  the  people. 

Life  in  the  Towns;  Pompeii  and  the  Graffiti. — When  we 
attempt  to  get  an  idea  of  the  life  in  the  various  towns  scat- 
tered over  the  empire,  we  find  it  difficult  on  account  of  the  few 
references  made  to  this  life  by  the  ancient  writers.  We  may 
say  in  general,  however,  that  the  cities  of  the  eastern  provinces 
remained  to  a  great  extent  under  the  Grace-Oriental  influ- 
ence which  followed  the  conquest  of  Alexander;  while  the  cities 
of  the  western  provinces  became  more  thoroughly  Romanized. 
These  western  towns  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  reflections 
in  miniature  of  the  capital  city  on  the  Tiber. 

The  uncovered  ruins  of  Pompeii  enable  us  to  judge  some- 
what of  the  life  in  a  Roman  town.  Here  we  find  the  remains 
of  a  city  of  small  dimensions,  of  narrow  streets,  of  houses  of 
moderate  size,  but  containing  many  features  which  we  see  in 
Rome  itself — forums,  theater,  temples,  as  well  as  a  basilica 
and  an  amphitheater.  These  monuments  indicate  a  life  quite 
similar  to  that  of  the  metropolis.  In  some  of  the  houses — 
like  the  "  House  of  Pansa  " — we  see  the  same  taste  for  luxury, 
as  is  evident  in  the  mosaic  work,  paintings,  and  other  works 
of  art.  We  also  find  some  remarkable  evidences  of  the  ordi- 
nary life  of  the  townsmen  in  the  graffiti,  .or  writings  left  upon 
the  walls  of  buildings,  some  of  which  hardly  rise  above  the 
dignity  of  rude  scribblings.  These  are  most  numerous  upon 
the  buildings  in  those  places  most  frequented  by  the  crowd. 
Then*  nro  advertisements  of  public  shows,  memoranda  of  sales, 
cookery  receipts,  personal  lampoons,  sentimental  love  effu- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EARLY  EMIMKK     435 

sions,  and  hundreds  of  similar  records  of  the  ordinary  life 
and  thoughts  of  this  ancient  people. 

Provincial  Life,  Travel,  and  Correspondence. — The  general 
features  that  we  see  in  Pompeii  were  no  doubt  repeated  in  the 
various  towns  throughout  the  provinces,  especially  in  the  West. 
There  was  evidently  the  same  tendency  in  the  cities  of  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  Africa  to  imitate  the  culture  of  the  central  city, 
to  adopt  the  Eoman  language,  art,  and  manners.  But  there 
were  certain  special  features  of  provincial  life  which  are 
worthy  of  notice. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  old  system  of  official  despotism 
that  prevailed  under  the  republic,  there  was  a  growing  inter- 
est in  public  affairs  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Each  town 
vied  with  other  towns  in  the  improvement  of  the  public  works. 
The  growing  public  spirit  is  shown  in  the  buildings  erected 
not  only  by  the  town  itself,  but  by  the  generous  contributions 
of  wealthy  private  citizens. 

The  relations  between  the  people  of  the  provinces  were  also 
becoming  closer  by  the  improvement  in  the  means  of  com- 
munication. The  empire  became  covered  with  a  network  of 
roads,  which  were  now  used  not  merely  for  the  transportation 
of  armies,  but  for  purposes  of  travel  and  correspondence. 
The  Appian  Way,  originally  built  by  Appius  Claudius  (p. 
312),  was  reconstructed  during  this  period,  and  was  the  model 
for  the  other  highways  of  the  empire.  The  Romans  traveled 
for  business  and  for  pleasure;  and  by  some  persons  traveling 
by  land  or  by  sea  was  regarded  as  a  part  of  one's  education. 
It  was  a  mark  of  culture  to  have  spent  some  time  in  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  or  Egypt.  Many  of  the  Roman  highways  were 
used  as  post-roads,  over  which-letters  might  be  sent  by  means 
of  private  runners  or  by  government  couriers.  Foot-runners 
were  accustomed  to  make  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  a 
day;  while  a  mounted  courier,  with  his  relay  of  horses,  might 
cover  a  hundred  miles  in  the  same  time.  The  postal  system 
of  Rome,  although  hardly  to  be  compared  with  that  of 


436  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

modern  times,  afforded  a  useful  means  for  the  transmission  of 
official  dispatches  and  for  the  correspondence  between  private 
persons. 

Industry  and  Commerce. — The  industrial  life  of  Rome  still 
suffered  from  the  introduction  of  slave  labor  which  followed 
the  great  wars  of  conquest  during  the  republican  period. 
Practically  all  the  agricultural  and  manufacturing  labor  was 
performed  by  slaves.  This  led  to  the  degradation  of  these 
forms  of  industry.  Hence  Italy  ceased  to  produce  the  com- 
modities that  she  needed;  and  this  in  turn  led  to  the  necessity 
of  importing  from  the  provinces  a  large  part  of  the  grains 
and  manufactured  products  necessary  for  consumption.  Com- 
merce, therefore,  continued  to  be  the  most  important  industry 
during  the  imperial  period.  The  mercantile  pursuits — those 
of  the  merchant,  the  importer,  the  banker,  the  capitalist — 
were  the  most  honored  occupations.  Rome  carried  on  an  ex- 
t'-iisive  commerce  with  all  parts  of  the  world.  From  Spain 
she  imported  lumber,  wool,  linen,  and  silver  ore;  from  Africa 
and  Egypt,  grains  and  fruit;  from  Greece,  wines.  From  the 
seaboard  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  she  received  the  lux- 
uries of  the  Orient — the  perfumes  of  Arabia,  the  spices,  ivory, 
and  precious  stones  of  India,  and  the  silks  of  China.  There 
were  three  great  commercial  routes  from  the  Far  East — the 
first  by  way  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea  to  Alex- 
andria ;  the  second  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Euphrates 
River,  and  the  Syrian  desert  to  Antioch;  and  the  third  by  way 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Volga,  and  the  Don  to  Olbia  on  the 
Black  Sea  (map,  p.  439). 

III.     THE  FIVE  GOOD  EMPERORS  (96-180  A.D.) 

Nerva,  Trajan,  and  Hadrian. — With  the  death  of  Domitian 
the  empire  came  back  into  the  hands  of  wise  and  beneficent 
rulers.  The  period  of  prosperity  which  began  with  Vespnsinn. 
was  now  continued  for  nearly  a  century.  These  rulers  are 


DKYKLor.MK.NT    ()!•'    Till':     KAMA     KMI'IUH 


43? 


known  as  "  the  five  good  emperors '' ;  and  when  we  consider 
their  uprightness  of  character,  their  political  ability,  and  their 
uniform  regard  for  the  welfare  of  their  subjects,  we  prob- 
ably cannot  find  in  the  history  of  the  world  a  like  series  of 
sovereigns,  ruling  with  equal  success  for  the  same  length  of 
time.  The  first  of  these  rulers  was  Nerva  ( 1)0-1)8  A.  D.), 
whose  mildness  and  tolerance  contrasted  strongly  wilb  i In- 
severe  qualities  of  Domitian.  Nerva  was  chosen  neither 
by  the  praetorians  nor  by  the  legions,  but  by  the  senate — 
which  fact  indicates  that  the 
empire  was  returning  to  the 
normal  political  system  estab- 
lished by  Augustus.  Within 
his  brief  reign,  he  could  do  lit- 
tle except  to  remedy  the  wrongs 
of  his  predecessor.  He  forbade 
the  prosecutions  for  high  trea- 
son and  the  practice  of  dela- 
tion; he  recalled  the  exiles  of 
Domitian,  and  relieved  the  peo- 
ple of  some  oppressive  taxes. 
In  the  words  of  Tacitus,  "  He 
blended  things  once  irreconcil- 
able, princely  power  and  liberty"  (principatum  ac  liberta- 
tem).  To  prevent  any  disturbance  at  his  death,  he  associated 
Trajan  with  himself  in  the  government. 

Trajan  (98-117  A.  D.)  has  the  great  distinction  of  being  the 
first  emperor  who  was  not  a  native  either  of  Eome  or  of  Italy. 
He  was  a  Spaniard  by  birth;  and  this  fact  shows  that  the 
dividing  line  between  Roman  and  provincial  was  becoming 
effaced.  Trajan  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  sover- 
eigns. He  was  a  brave  soldier,  a  wise  statesman,  and  an  able 
administrator.  He  had  something  of  the  conciliatory  spirit  of 
Augustus,  and  preserved  the  forms  of  the  republic,  while  main- 
taining the  authority  of  the  emperor.  He  restored  to  the 


NERVA 


ROMAN  DOMINIONS 

At  the  Death  of  Trajan 

A.D.  117 
The  greatest  extent  of  tin-  F.in|iin- 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


tP     TVT  A  T>     TVo    IR. 


439 


A  LIST  OF  THE  CHIEF  ROMAN  PROVINCES 

WITH    THE    DATES    OF    THEIR    ACQUISITION    OR    ORGANIZATION 


I.  EUROPEAN  PROVINCES 

1.  Western. 

Spain  (B.C.  205-19). 
Gaul  (B.C.  120-17). 
Britain  (A.D.  43-84). 

2.  Central. 

Rhaetia  et  Vindelicia  (B.C.  15). 
Noricum  (B.C.  15). 
I'aniionia  (A.D.  10). 

3.  Eastern. 

Illyricum  (B.C.  107-:>0). 
Macedonia  (B.C.  146). 
Achaia  (B.C.  146). 
Mcesia  (B.C.  29). 
Thrace  (A.D.  46). 
Dacia  (A.D.  107). 

II.  AFRICAN  PROVINCES 
Africa  proper  (B.C.  146). 
Cyrenaica  and  Crete  (B.C.  74, 

63). 

Numidia  (B.C.  46). 
Egypt  (B.C.  30). 
Mauretauia  (A.D.  42). 


III.  ASIATIC  PROVINCES 

1.   In  Asia  Minor. 

Asia  proper  (B.C.  133). 
Bithynia    et    Pontus    (B.C. 

74,  65). 

Cilicia  (B.C.  67). 
Galatia  (B.C.  25). 
Pamphylia  et  Lycia  (B.C.  25, 

A.D.  43). 
Cappadocia  (A.D.  17). 

"2.    In  Southwestern  Asia. 
Syria  (B.C.  64). 
Judea  (B.C.  63-A.D.  70). 
Arabia  Petrsea  (A.D.  105). 
Armenia  (A.D.  114). 
Mesopotamia  (A.D.  115). 
Assyria  (A.D.  115). 

IV.  ISLAND  PROVINCES 

Sicily  (B.C.  241). 

Sardinia  et  Corsica  (B.C.  238). 

Cyprus  (B.C.  58). 


Total,  32. 


NOTK.  —  Many  of  these  chief  provinces  were  subdivided  into  smaller  prov- 
inces, each  under  a  separate  governor  —  making  the  total  number  of  provincial 
governors  more  than  one  hundred.  For  a  complete  list  of  the  Roman  prov- 
inces in  A.D.  117,  see  Leighton,  p.  xxix. 


440 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE 


441 


TRAJAN 


people  the  right  of  electing  the  magistrates,  which  had  been 
taken  away  by  Tiberius.  He  respected  the  rights  of  the  sen- 
ate, and  gave  to  it  liberty  of 
speech.  He  was  also  a  liberal  pa- 
tron of  literature  and  art.  While 
Trajan  followed,  in  the  main  the 
policy  of  Augustus,  he  departed 
from  this  policy  in  one  particular. 
He  did  not  restrict  the  frontiers 
within  the  limits  that  Augustus 
had  intended.  Under  him  the 
Eomans  became  once  more  a  con- 
quering people.  This  warlike  em- 
peror pushed  his  conquests  across 
the  Danube  and  acquired  the 
new  province  of  Dacia.  He  also 
extended  his  arms  into  Asia,  and 

as  a  result  of  a  war  with  the  Parthians  brought  into  subjection 
Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria.    It  was  during  the  reign 

of  Trajan  that  the  Roman  empire 
reached  its  greatest  extent. 

The  next  emperor,  Hadrian  (117- 
138  A.  D.),  was  proclaimed  by  the 
prs&torians.  But  Hadrian  did  not  re- 
gard this  as  a  constitutional  act,  and 
requested  to  be  formally  elected  by 
the  senate.  In  some  respects  he  was 
similar  to  Trajan,  with  the  same 
statesmanlike  ability,  and  the  same 
desire  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects. 
But  he  differed  from  Trajan  in 
thinking  that  the  greatness  of  Eome 
did  not  depend  upon  military  glory. 

He  therefore  voluntarily  gave  up  the  extensive  conquests  which 
Trajan  had  made  in  the  East,  and  once  more  made  the  Eu~ 


HADRIAN 


442 


THE    ROMAN    WOULD 


phrates  the  frontier  of  the  empire.  In  this  regard  he  returned 
to  the  policy  of  Augustus,  which  was  to  improve  the  empire 
rather  than  to  enlarge  it.  Hadrian  showed,  if  possible,  a 
stronger  sympathy  with  the  provinces  than  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors. To  become  acquainted  with  their  condition  and  to 
advance  their  interests,  he  spent  a  large  part  of  his  time  in 
visiting  them;  and  he  is  hence  sometimes  called  "the  Trav- 
eler." Of  his  long  reign  of  twenty-one  years  he  spent  nearly 
two  thirds  outside  of  Italy.  He  made  his  temporary  residence 
in  the  chief  cities  of  the,  empire — in  York,  Athens,  Antioch, 
and  Alexandria — where  he  was  continually  looking  after  the 
welfare  of  his  people.  Hadrian  also  looked  well  to  the  de- 
fenses of  the  empire,  especially  against  the  German  tribes  on 
the  north.  He  not  only  established  military  garrisons  along 
the  line  of  frontier  rivers,  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  but  also 
is  said  to  have  erected  a  fortification  connecting  the  head 
waters  of  these  rivers.  The  most  durable  evidence  of  his  de- 
fensive policy  is  seen  in  the  ex- 
tensive wall  built  on  the  north- 
ern frontier  of  the  province  of 
Britain,  the  remains  of  which 
exist  at  the  present  day. 

Antoninus  Pius  and  Marcus 
Aurelius. — The  two  emperors 
that  followed  Hadrian  belonged 
to  the  family  of  the  An'tonines, 
and  were  among  the  purest  and 
most  upright  characters  that  we 
find  in  Roman  history.  Antoni'- 
nus  Pius  (138-161  A.  D.)  was 
a  senator  from  the  province  of 
Gaul,  whom  Hadrian  had  recommended  to  the  senate  for 
election  to  the  principate.  As  a  man  and  a  sovereign  his  life 
was  inspired  with  the  highest  moral  principles.  As  a  private 
citizen  he  was  simple  and  temperate  in  his  habits;  and  as  ar 


ANTONINUS  Pius 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE 


11:) 


emperor  he  was  the  same.  His  exalted  character  was  reflected 
in  his  beneficent  reign.  Although  not  so  great  a  statesman 
as  Hadrian,  he  was  yet  more  honored  and  beloved  by  his  sub- 
jects. His  reign  of  twenty-three  years  is  usually  known  as 
the  "uneventful  reign,"  because  there  were  no  wars  and 
calamities  to  mar  the  peaceful  course  of  events.  But  while 
devoid  of  startling  incidents,  the  reign  of  Antoninus  was  of 
great  importance,  because  of  the  purifying  influence  which 
the  emperor  exercised  upon  law  and  legislation,  and  because 
it  marked  the  beginning  of  the  golden  age  of  Roman  juris- 
prudence. ) 

Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180  A.  D.),  who  came  to  the  throne 
at  the  death  of  Antoninus,  was  in  his  personal  character  one 
of  thejnost  remarkable  men  of 
antiquity.  He  was  a  philosopher 
as  well  as  an  emperor;  and  his 
"  Meditations  " — a  book  on  the 
conduct  of  life — has  been  highly 
esteemed  as  a  moral  text-book  by 
all  subsequent  generations.  But 
with  all  his  personal  worth,  his 
reign  was  a  period  of  misfortunes. 
It  was  now  that  Rome  was  af- 
flicted with  a  deadly  plague  and 
famine,  the  most  terrible  in  her 
history.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
barbarians  from  the  north — the 
Quadi  and  Marcomanni — were 
trying  to  break  through  the  frontiers  on  the  upper  Rhine,  and 
threatening  to  overrun  the  provinces.  But  the  emperor  met 
these  dangers  with  courage  and  patience;  and  he  died  at  his 
post  of  duty  while  resisting  the  enemies  of  Rome.  The  only 
blot  upon  the  memory  of  this  noble  prince  is  the  fact  that  he 
was  led  to  persecute  the  Christians,  whom  he  regarded  as  a 
turbulent  sect  and  whom  the  people  superstitiously  believed 


MABCUS  AURELIUS 


444  THE    ROMAN   WORLD 

were  the  cause  of  their  calamities.  This  act  was  thus  a  great 
mistake  made  by  a  conscientious  man. 

The  Culmination  of  the  Empire. — The  death  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  closed  the  most  prosperous  period  of  Roman  history 
and  the  culmination  of  the  empire.  When  one  looks  at  the 
general  condition  of  the  Eoman  world  it  will  not  be  difficult 
to  see  that  the  fall  of  the  Roman  republic  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  empire  were  not  an  evil,  but  a  great  benefit  to  the 
Roman  people.  In  place  of  a  century  of  civil  wars  and  discord 
which  closed  the  republic,  we  see  more  than  two  centuries  of 
internal  peace  and  tranquillity.  Instead  of  an  oppressive  and 
avaricious  treatment  of  the  provincials,  we  see-  a  treatment 
which  is  with  few  exceptions  mild  and  generous.  Instead  of  a 
government  controlled  by  a  proud  and  selfish  oligarchy,  we 
see  a  government  controlled,  generally  speaking,  by  a  wise  and 
patriotic  prince.  From  the  accession  of  Augustus  to  the  death 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  (31  B.  c.  to  180  A.  D.),  a  period  of  two 
hundred  and  eleven  years,  only  three  emperors  who  held 
power  for  any  length  of  time — Tiberius,  Nero,  and  Domitian 
— are  known  as  tyrants ;  and  their  cruelty  was  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  city,  and  to  their  own  personal  enemies.  The 
establishment  of  the  empire,  we  must  therefore  believe,  marked 
a  stage  of  progress  and  not  of  decline  in  the  history  of  the 
Roman  people.  The  Roman  world  reached  its  highest  stage  of 
development  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  and  the  period  has 
been  called  by  Gibbon  the  happiest  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  Imperial  Government  and  Administration. — It  was 
during  this  period  that  the  imperial  government  of  Rome 
furnished  the  highest  example  that  the  world  has  ever  seen  of 
what  we  may  call  a  "  paternal  autocracy  " — that  is,  a  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  a  single  ruler,  but  exercised  solely  for 
the  benefit  of  the  people.  In  this  respect  the  ideals  of  Julius 
and  Augustus  seem  to  have  been  completely  realized.  There 
was  stilJ  a  certain  deference  paid  to  the  constitutional  forms 
of  the  republic ;  but  this  deference  to  the  past  did  not  interfere 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    EARLY   EMPIRE          445 

t 

with  the  emperor's  present  authority.  The  senate  was  treated 
with  respect;  but  its  members,  being  chosen  by  the  emperor, 
were  of  course  submissive  to  his  will,  and  there  was  no  occa- 
sion to  protest  against  an  authority  which  received  the  un- 
qualified support  of  the  people.1 

An  effort  was  now  made  by  the  emperors  to  give  to  the 
administrative  system  a  more  complete  organization.  For 
example,  the  body  of  advisers  which  had  been  occasionally 
consulted  by  the  previous  emperors  was  organized  by  Hadrian 
into  a  permanent  council  (consilium  principis)  ;  and  he  in- 
cluded among  its  members  some  of  the  most  eminent  jurists. 
This  emperor  also  gave  a  more  complete  organization  to  the 
civil  service — that  is,  the  body  of  administrative  officers  who 
executed  the  imperial  will.  Hitherto,  the  emperor  had  relied 
upon  his  own  private  dependents — freedmen  and  even  slaves — 
to  conduct  his  official  business.  But  Hadrian  organized  a  dig- 
nified body  of  officers  drawn  from  the  equites  to  preside  over 
the  departments  of  administration. 

The  Provincial  and  Municipal  Systems, — The  general  or- 
ganization of  the  provinces  remained  very  much  as  it  had  been 
established  by  Augustus.  There  were  still  the  two  classes — 
the  senatorial  provinces  governed  by  proconsuls  and  propraB- 
tors  appointed  by  the  senate;  and  the  imperial  provinces, 
governed  by  the  legati,  or  emperor's  lieutenants.  But  this 
distinction  was  now  more  formal  than  real,  since  the  emperor 
exercised  nearly  the  same  supervision  over  the  former  as  over 
the  latter.  We  have  a  good  example  of  the  scrupulous  care 
which  the  emperor  exercised  over  the  provinces  in  the  corre- 
spondence between  Trajan  and  Pliny  the  Younger,  governor 
of  Bithynia.  The  questions  submitted  by  the  governor  and 

1  It  is  hardly  proper  to  call  the  Roman  empire  at  this  time  a  "  constitu- 
tional monarchy,"  as  we  understand  that  phrase ;  since  the  emperor's 
power,  properly  speaking,  was  not  restricted  by  any  legal  limitations.  His 
sovereignty  was  not  shared  or  restrained  by  any  other  body  in  the  state. 
The  "dyarchy,"  which  to  a  great  extent  was  a  fiction  under  Augustus,  was 
still  more  a  fiction  under  his  successors. 


446  THE    ROM  AX    AYOftLD 

llir  answers  given  by  the  emperor  deal  with  many  matters 
relating  to  the  welfare  of  the  province. 

The  province  was,  in  fact,  a  collection  of  towns  or  cities; 
and  the  political  freedom  of  the  provincials  depended  upon 
the  status  of  the  towns  in  which  the}'  lived.  These  towns  were 
not  all  alike.  While  they  generally  had  their  own  govern- 
ment and  chose  their  own  officers,  their  relations  to  Rome 
were  quite  various.  The  different  kinds  of  towns  and  their 
relative  numbers  in  the  provinces  we  may  judge  from  Pliny's 
enumeration  of  the  towns  of  Baet'ica,  a  province  in  Spain. 
Here  were  nine  colonies,  eight  municipia,  twenty-nine  Latin 
towns,  six  free  towns,  three  federate  towns,  and  one  hundred 
and  twenty  tributary  towns.  The  colonies  were  generally  set- 
tlements of  soldiers  or  poor  citizens  sent  out  from  Italy  and 
retaining  full  Roman  rights.  The  municipia  were  native 
towns  which  had  received  the  same  rights.  The  Latin  towns 
were  those  which  received  the  partial  rights  of  citizenship 
(commercium) .  The  free  towns  were  the  native  cities  which 
were  exempted  from  all  burdens.  The  federate  towns  were 
related  to  Rome  by  a  special  treaty.  The  tributary  towns, 
which  comprised  the  great  mass  of  provincial  cities,  were  sub- 
ject to  the  Roman  tribute  or  tax,  which  might  be  paid  in 
money  or  in  produce.  The  town  had  generally  for  its  own 
government  a  municipal  council  (curia  or  or  do  decurionum). 
composed  of  the  landed  aristocracy  (cur idles)  and  presided 
over  by  two  magistrates  (duumviri).  The  tendency  of  all 
towns  in  the  West  was  to  conform  to  this  model. 

Literature  of  the  Early  Empire. — The  influence  of  the 
early  emperors  upon  the  intellectual  life  of  Rome  may  be  seen 
in  the  literature.  The  literary  period  which  followed  the 
brilliant  age  of  Augustus  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "  Sil- 
ver Age."  The  despotic  rule  of  the  Julian  emperors  was  not 
favorable  to  letters.  Two  names  of  that  period,  however, 
stand  out  with  some  prominence,  those  of  Seneca  and  Liican. 
Seneca  was  a  distinguished  Stoic  philosopher  and  wrote  in- 


.DEYi:i.oi>Mi:\v  OF  TIIK   KAULV   KM  PI  RE       447 

structive  essays  upon  moral  subjects;  Lucan  wrote  a  lengthy 
epic  poem  describing  the  civil  war  between  Pompey  and  CaBsar. 
Under  the  patronage  of  the  Flavian  emperors  occurred  -a  lit- 
erary revival,  which  was  marked  by  at  least  two  distinguished 
writers,  Pliny  the  Elder  and  Quintilian.  Pliny,  the  most 
learned  man  of  the  day,  wrote  an  extensive  work  on  Natural 
History;  while  Quintilian,  a  native  of  Spain,  was  the  author 
of  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  Oratory.  The  revival  which  began 
under  the  Flavians  culminated  in  the  more  vigorous  literature 
of  the  time  of  the  good  emperors.  During  this  time  appeared 
two  of  the  most  distinguished  of  Roman  writers — Tacitus, 
perhaps  the  greatest  of  Roman  historians,  and  Ju' venal,  the 
greatest  of  Roman  satirists.  Besides  these  may  be  mentioned 
Pliny  the  Younger,  the  writer  of  epistles,  and  Suetonius,  the 
biographer  of  the  "  Twelve  Caasars."  . 

Roman.  Architecture. — It  was  during  the  period  of  the  five 
good  emperors,  especially  under  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  that 
the  architecture  of  Rome  reached  its  highest  development. 
Roman  architecture  was  still  modeled  after  that  of  the  Greeks, 
but  the  Romans  continued  to  use  their  skill  for  more  prac- 
tical purposes,  and  expressed  in  a  remarkable  manner  the 
ideas  of  massive  strength  and  imposing  dignity.  By  their 
splendid  works  they  have  taken  rank  among  the  world's  great- 
est builders.  We  have  already  noticed  the  progress  made  in 
the  age  of  Augustus.  This  progress  was  continued  by  his 
successors,  and  by  the  time  of  Hadrian  Rome  had  become  a 
city  of  magnificent  public  buildings.  The  architectural  center 
of  the  city  was  the  Roman  Forum,  with  the  additional  Forums 
of  Julius,  Augustus,  Vespasian,  Nerva,  and  Trajan  (see  map, 
p.  468) .  Here  were  the  buildings  in  which  the  gods  were  wor- 
shiped, the  laws  were  enacted,  and  justice  was  administered. 
The  most  conspicuous  buildings  which  would  attract  the  eyes 
of  one  standing  in  the  Forum  were  the  splendid  temples  of 
Jupiter  and  Juno  upon  the  Capitoline  hill.  Although  it  is  true 
that  the  Romans  obtained  their  chief  ideas  of  architectural 

MOREY'S    AXCIEXT   HIST. 26 


448 


THE    ROMAN   WORLD 


beauty  from  the  Greeks,  it  is  a  question  whether  Athens,  even 
in  the  time  of  Pericles,  could  have  presented  such  a  scene  of 
imposing  grandeur  as  did  Rome  in  the  time  of  Trajan  and 
Hadrian,  with  its  forums,  temples,  aqueducts,  basilicas,  pal- 


MAUSOLEUM  OF  HADRIAN  (Castle  of  St.  Angelo) 

aces,  porticoes,  amphitheaters,  theaters,  circuses,  baths,  col- 
umns, triumphal  arches,  and  tombs. 

Roman  Philosophy. — As  the  Romans  were  essentially  a 
practical  people,  they  had  little  taste  for  pure  philosophy. 
They  adopted,  however,  some  of  the  philosophical  systems  of 
the  Greeks,  and  paid  special  attention  to  the  practical  or  moral 
side  of  these  systems.  Their  philosophy  was  largely  the  phi- 
losophy of  life.  The  two  systems  which  were  most  popular 
with  them  were  Epicureanism  and  Stoicism.  The  Epicureans 
believed  that  happiness  was  the  great  end  of  life.  But  the 
high  idea  of  happiness  advocated  by  the  Greek  philosophers 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    TIIK    KAIJLV     KMI'IRE  449 

became  degraded  into  the  selfish  idea  of  pleasure,  which  could 
easily  excuse  almost  any  form  of  indulgence.  In  Rome  we 
see  this  idea  of  life  exercising  its  influence  especially  upon 
the  wealthy  and  indolent  classes.  The  Stoics,  on  the  other 
hand,  believed  that  the  end  of  life  is  to  live  according  to  the 
highest  law  of  our  nature.  This  doctrine  tended  to  make 
strong  and  upright  characters.  It  could  not  well  have  a 
degrading  influence;  so  we  find  some  of  the  noblest  men  of 
Rome  adhering  to  its  tenets — such  men  as  Cato,  Cicero,  Sen- 
eca, and  Marcus  Aurelius.  But  the  study  of  philosophy  was 
restricted  mainly  to  the  educated  classes,  and  had  little  influ- 
ence upon  the  common  people.  The  lower  classes  still  retained 
their  old  religious  notions,  or  else  were  gradually  accepting 
the  new  teachings  of  Christianity. 

Roman  Jurisprudence. — The  most  ^distinctive  product  of 
Roman  civilization  was  the  Roman  law ;  and  this  too  reached 
its  highest  development  under  the  empire.  The  Romans  had 
come  to  believe  that  law  was  based  upon  principles  of 
equality  and  justice.  The  rights  of  all  free  persons — citizens, 
Latins,  and  provincials — were  now  fully  recognized  and  pro- 
tected by  the  Roman  courts.  This  law  had  been  growing  and 
broadening  with  the  growth  and  extension  of  the  Roman 
power.  It  was  now  scattered  in  a  vast  number  of  decisions 
and  edicts  made  by  the  Roman  praetors  and  the  provincial 
governors,  as  well  as  by  the  emperor  himself.  Hadrian  di- 
rected one  of  his  jurists — Salvius  Julia'nus — to  make  a  collec- 
tion of  these  laws,  so  that  there  could  be  a  single  code  for  the 
whole  empire.  This  collection  was  called  the  Perpetual  Edict 
(E dictum  Perpetuum).  But  more  than  this,  the  Roman  jur- 
ists were  beginning  to  feel  the  influence  of  the  Stoic  philos- 
ophy and  to  recognize  the  truth  of  the  high  moral  precepts 
laid  down  by  such  emperors  as  Antoninus  Pius.  They  were 
led  to  believe  that  law  is  a  science  founded  upon  the  principles 
of  justice,  and  that  the  law  of  the  state  must  be  so  interpreted 
as  to  conform  to  these  principles. 


450 


T11K     1IOMAN    WOULD 


IV.     DECLINE  OF  THE  EARLY  EMPIRE  (180-284  A.  D.) 

The  Period  of  Military  Despotism. — The  great  defect  of 
the  imperial  government  was  the  fact  that  its  power  iv>ir<| 
upon  a  military  basis.  It  is  true  that  most  of  the  emperors 
were  popular  and  loved  by  their  subjects.  But  back  of  llu-ir 
power  was  the  army,  which  now  more  than  ever  before  as- 
serted its  claims  to  the  government,  and  by  its  usurpation 
brought  the  empire  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  This  period,  ex- 
tending from  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  to  the  accession 
of  Diocle'tian  (180-284  A.  D.),  has  therefore  been  called  "  the 
period  of  military  despotism."  It  was  a  time  when  the  em- 
perors were  set  up  by  the  soldiers,  and  generally  cut  down  by 
their  swords.  During  this  period  of  one  hundred  and  four 
years,  the  imperial  title  was  held  by  twenty-nine  different 
rulers,1  some  few  of  whom  were  able  and  high-minded  men, 
but  a  large  number  of  whom  were  weak  and  despicable.  Some 
of  them  held  their  places  for  only  a  few  months.  The  history 
of  this  time  contains  for  the  most  part  only  the  records  of  a 
declining  government.  There  are  few  events  of  importance, 
except  those  which  illustrate  the  tyranny  of  the  army  and  the 
general  tendency  toward  decay  and  disintegration. 

Septimius  Severus  (193-211  A.  D.). — The  reign  of  Septimius 
Severus  is  noted  for  the  re-forming  of  the  praetorian  guards. 
which  Augustus  had  organized  and  Tiberius  had  encamped 
near  the  city.  In  place  of  the  old  body  of  nine  thousand  sol- 
diers Septimius  organized  a  Roman  garrison  of  forty  thousand 

troops  selected  from  the  best  soldiers  of  the  legions.    This  was 

• 

'The  following  table  shows  the  names  of  these  emperors  and  the  dates  of 
their  accession  : 


Coni'modus  .... 
1'.  r'tinax  .    .    .    -    - 

A.D.  180 

-      r.tt 
"       \'M 
"      193 
"      211 

-      217 
"      21  S 

"      236 

ftordia'nnB  I.   I 
GordiamiB  II.   » 
I'uj.ir'nuH  Maxim 
Ball>i'iins 

(im-diaim-  III 
I'hilip'iniB     .    . 

1  >•  1-1  ii« 

.    .  A.D.  237 
us}..     ^ 

.     "      %,M< 
2-19 

Gallie'nus     ....  A 
Claudius  II  
\urelian 

I,.  2rtl 
'      283 

Jiiliaui. 
S.-|.tiiniu-  S«-Vi 
Caracal  la  -  •  — 
Oeta          (    ' 
Mai-ri'miH      . 

'.llllv    . 

Alex  an 
Maximi'nuB  . 

MTUB! 

rns  . 

Tacitus 

Floria'niiK     .... 

1'rnlniK 

Cams      
Cari'nus           1 
Niiiin-ria'nUB)  •    •    • 

(Sail.  is     .... 
.Kniilia'iiUM.    . 
Valerian 

.     "      233 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    EARLY    EMPIRE          451 

intended  to  give  a  stronger  military  support  to  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  in  fact  it  gave  to  the  army  a  more  powerful  influ- 
ence in  the  appointment  of  the  emperors. 

Edict  of  Caracalla  (211  A.  D.). — The  Roman  franchise, 
which  had  been  gradually  extended  by  the  previous  emperors, 
was  now  conferred  upon  all  i In- 
free  inhabitants  of  the  Roman 
world.  This  important  act  NVMS 
done  by  Caracalla,  whose  motive, 
however,  was  not  above  reproach. 
The  edict  was  issued  to  increase 
the  revenue  by  extending  the  in- 
heritance tax,  which  had  hereto- 
fore rested  only  upon  citizens. 
Notwithstanding  the  avaricious  ||J 
motive  of  the  emperor,  this  was  ^vT 

in  the  line  of  earlier  reforms  and 

_.    .      ..  CARACALLA 

effaced  the  last  distinction  be- 
tween Romans  and  provincials.     The  name  of  Caracalla  is  in- 
famous, not  only  for  his  cruel  proscriptions,  but  especially  for 
his  murder  of  Papinian,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Roman 
jurists,  who  refused  to  defend  his  crimes. 

Elagabalus  and  Alexander  Severus. — We  need  not  dwell 
upon  the  different  reigns  of  the  dreary  period  extending  from 
Caracalla   to   Claudius   IT. ;   and   we   shall   notice   only   two 
princes,  who  represented  the  most  extreme  types  of  the  Roman 
character.     The  one  was  Elagabalus  (218-222  A.  D.),  the  most 
repulsive  of  the  emperors,  who  took  his  name  from  the  sun- 
god  worshiped  in  the  East,  and  who  became  a  devotee  of  the 
grossest  superstitions  and  a  monster  of  wickedness.    The  other 
was  Alexander  Severus  (222-235  A.  D.),  a  prince  of  the  purest 
•  and  most  blameless  life.     He  loved  the  true  and  the  good  of 
all  times.     It  is  said  that  he  set  up  in  his  private  chapel  the 
iires  of  those  whom  he  regarded  as  the  greatest  teachers  of 
nkind,  including  Abraham  and  Jesus  Christ.    He  selected 


452 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


as  his  advisers  the  famous  jurists,  Ulpian  and  Paullus.  The 
most  important  event  of  his  reign  was  the  successful  resist- 
ance made  to  the  Persians,  who  had  just  established  a  new 
monarchy  (that  of  the  Sassan'idas)  on  the  ruins  of  the  Par- 
thian empire. 

Foreign  Dangers  of  the  Empire. — Ever  since  the  time  of 
Augustus  it  had  been  the  policy  of  the  emperors  to  maintain 

the  frontiers  on  the  Rhine,  the 
Danube,  and  the  Euphrates. 
This  policy  had  been  generally 
carried  out  with  success  until 
the  middle  of  the  third  centu- 
ry, when  the  outside  nations  be- 
gan to  break  over  these  bound- 
aries. There  were  several  of 
these  foreign  peoples  that  were 
now  encroaching  upon  the  Ro- 
man territory.  On  the  lower 
Rhine  near  the  North  Sea  were 
a  number  of  barbarous  German 
tribes,  united  under  the  general 
name  of  Franks.  On  the  upper  Rhine  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Alps  were  various  tribes  gathered  together  under  the  name 
of  Alemanni  (all  men).  Across  the  Danube  and  on  the  north- 
ern shores  of  the  Black  Sea  was  the  great  nation  of  the  Goths, 
which  came  to  be  the  terror  of  Rome.  On  the  east  beyond 
the  Euphrates  was  the  new  Persian  monarchy  (that  of  the 
Sassanidae),  which  was  now  laying  claim  to  all  the  Roman 
provinces  in  Asia.  Under  a  succession  of  emperors  whose 
names  we  need  not  remember,  the  Romans  were  engaged  in 
wars  with  these  various  peoples — not  now  wars  for  the  sake  of 
con<|inst  Mini  .irlory  as  in  the  time  of  the  republic,  but  wars  of1 
defense  .-mil  for  the  sake  of  existence. 

The  Silent  Invasions;  the  Coloni. — The  continual  pressi   < 
of  the  outside  peoples — especially  the  Germans  on  the  north 


ALEXANDER  SEVERUS 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    TI1K    KAULY     KMI'MMO  453 

led'  tlie  emperors  to  adopt  a  conciliatory  policy,  and  to  grant 
to  these  barbarians  peaceful  settlements  within  the  provinces. 
Sometimes  whole  tribes  were  allowed  to  settle  upon  lands  as- 
signed to  them.  Not  only  the  Roman  territory  but  the  army 
and  offices  of  the  state  were  opened  to  Germans  who  were  will- 
ing to  become  Roman  subjects.  The  most  able  of  the  bar- 
barian chiefs  were  even  made  Roman  generals.  This  gradual 
infiltration  of  the  barbarian  population  is  sometimes  called 
the  "silent  invasions."  A  part  of  the  new  population  was 
treated  in  a  manner  new  to  them.  Instead  of  being  sold  as 
slaves,  like  captives  in  war,  they  were  given  over  to  large 
landed  proprietors,  and  attached  to  the  estates  as  permanent 
tenants.  This  class  of  persons  were  called  colo'ni,  and  were 
really  serfs  attached  to  the  soil.  The  great  body  of  coloni  was 
made  up  not  only  of  barbarian  immigrants,  but  of  manumitted 
slaves,  and  even  of  Roman  freemen  who  could  not  support 
themselves.  They  formed  a  large  part  of  the  later  population 
in  the  provinces. 

Partial  Recovery  of  the  Empire  (268-284  A.  D.). — Under 
the  leadership  of  five  able  rulers,  the  so-called  Illyrian  em- 
perors— Claudius  II.,  Aurelian,  Tacitus,  Probus,  and  Carus — 
the  empire  recovered  somewhat  from  the  disasters  of  the  pre- 
ceding years.  Claudius  II.  defeated  the  Goths  who  had  crossed 
the  Danube.  Aurelian  (270-275  A.  D.)  built  a  new  and  more 
extensive  wall  about  the  city  of  Rome,  restored  the  Roman 
authority  in  the  East,  and  destroyed  the  city  of  Palmy 'ra, 
which  had  been  made  the  seat  of  an  independent  kingdom, 
ruled  by  the  famous  Queen  Zenobia.  The  successful  efforts 
of  these  emperors  showed  that  the  empire  could  still  be  pre- 
served, if  properly  organized  and  administered.  The  events 
of  the  third  century  made  it  quite  clear  that  if  the  empire 
was  to  continue,  and  the  provinces  were  to  be  held  together, 
there  must  be  some  radical  change  in  the  imperial  govern- 
ment. The  decline  of  the  early  empire  thus  paved  the  way 
for  a  new  form  of  imperialism. 


454  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE   JULIAN    EMPERORS. — Tiberius    and    Caligula. — Claudius 
and  Nero. — The  Emperor  and  the  Empire. — Monarchical  Tenden- 
cies.— Condition    of   the    Provinces. — Public    Works. — The    Chris- 
tians at  Rome. 

II.  THE  FLAVIAN  EMPERORS. — The  Disputed  Succession. — Ves- 
pasian and  Titus. — The  Tyranny  of  Domitian. — Classes  of  Roman 
Society. — Domestic  Life:    Houses,  Food,   Dress. — Social  Life   and 
Amusements. — Life  in   the   Towns;    Pompeii  and   the  Graffiti. — 
Provincial    Life,     Travel,     and    Correspondence. — Industry     and 
Trade. 

III.  THE  FIVE  GOOD  EMPERORS. — Nerva,  Trajan,  and  Hadrian. — 
Antoninus  Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius. — The  Culmination  of  the 
Empire. — The    Imperial    Government    and    Administration. — The 
Provincial  and  Municipal  Systems. — Literature  of  the  Early  Em- 
pire.— Roman  Architecture. — Roman   Philosophy. — Roman  Juris- 
prudence. 

IV.  DECLINE  OF  THE   EARLY  EMPIRE. — The  Period  of  Military 
Despotism. — Septimius  Severns. — Edict  of  Caracalla. — Elagabalus 
a  in  I    Alexander  Severus. — Foreign   Dangers  of  the  Empire. — The 
Silent  Invasions;  the  Coloni. — Partial  Recovery  of  the  Empire. 


REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Pelham,  Bk.  V.,  Ch.  4,  "The  Julian  Line";  Bk.  VI.,  Ch.  1,  "The 
Flavians  and  the  Antonines";  Ch.  2,  "The  Empire  in  the  T.hird 
Century"  (18).1 

Gibbon,  Chs.  1-3  (the  Roman  empire  from  Augustus  to  Marcus 
Aurelius);  Ch.  8  (the  new  Persian  empire);  Ch.  11  (the  wall 
of  Aurelian;  the  conquest  of  Palmyra)  (18). 

Abbott,  Ch.  13,  "From  Tiberius  to  Nero";  Ch.  14,  "The  Flavian 
Emperors"  (22). 

Bury,  Roman  Empire,  Ch.  30,  "The  Roman  World  under  the  Em- 
pire"; Ch.  31,  "Roman  Life  and  Manners";  pp.  366-373  (the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem);  pp.  438-448  (correspondence  be- 
tween Trajan  and  Pliny  the  Younger)  (18). 

Capes,  Early  Empire,  Ch.  14,  "Life  in  the  Provinces";  Ch.  1  "», 
•  Slate  of  Trade"  (18). 

-  Antonines,  Ch.  6,  "Attitude  of  the  Imperial  Government  to- 
ward Christians";  Ch.  9,  "Administrative  Forms  of  the  Im- 
perial <M»\  eminent"  (18). 

Thomas,  Ch.  1,  "At  Pompeii";  pp.  28-41  (the  ftraffiti);  Ch.  4,  "The 
Baths  and  the  Games";  Ch.  5  (gifts,  peculiar  customs  of  the 
Romans);  Ch.  8,  "Country  Life":  |>|>.  I'.M)-:JUO  (country  houses); 
Ch.  9,  "Schools  and  Books"  (education):  Ch.  14,  "A  Typical 
Roman  of  tin-  Kmpirr.  IMiny  the  Younger"  (19). 

Mau.Ch.  32,  "Tli.-  I'omprian  Mmisr":  Ch.  56,  "The  Graffiti"  (20). 


The    fitfiirp    in    puronthosls   refers   to   the   number   of   the   topic   in    the 
.  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE    LATKi;     KMI'IRE  455 

Preston  and  Dodge,  II.,  "The  House  and  Every  Day  Life";  IV., 

"Food  and  Clothing"   (19). 
Inge,  Ch.  6,  "Grades  of  Society'';   Ch.  9,  "Amusements";   Ch.  10, 

"Luxury"  (19). 
Dill,  Roman  Society  from  Nero,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  2,  "Municipal  Life"; 

Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Religion  of  Mithra"  (19). 
Merivale,  Empire,  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  39,  "Unity  of  the  Empire";  Ch.  41, 

"Life  in  Rome";    Vol.  VII.,  pp.  58-62  (the  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius) (18). 
Boissier,  Rome  and  Pompeii,  Ch.  1,  "The  Forums";   Ch.  3,  "The 

Catacombs";   Ch.  4,  "Hadrian's  Villa'*  (at  Tivoli)    (20). 
Lanciani,    Ruins    and    Excavations,    pp.    310-319    (the    Forum    of 

Trajan). 
Midleton,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  343-345  (the  arch  of  Septimius  Severus) ;  Vol. 

II.,  Ch.  12,  "Walls  of  Aurelianus"   (20). 
Farrar,  Seekers  after  God,  "Marcus  Aurelius." 
Munro,  Source  Book,  Part  XL,  "Roman  Life  and  Society"  (25). 
Tacitus,  Annals,  Bk.  XV.,  Chs.  38-43  (the  burning  of  Rome);  Ch. 

44  (persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Nero)   (25). 
Suetonius,  The  Twelve  Caesars  (26). 


CHAPTER    XXX 

THE  LATER  EMPIRE  OF  DIOCLETIAN  AND  CONSTANT INE 

I.     THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  DIOCLETIAN  (284-305  A.  D.) 

The  New  Imperialism. — It  has  been  said  that  the  early 
empire  of  Augustus  and  his  successors  was  an  absolute  mon- 
archy disguised  by  republican  forms.  This  is  in  general  quite 
true.  But  the  old  republican  forms  had  for  a  long  time  been 
losing  their  hold,  and  at  the  time  of  Diocletian  they  were  ready 
to  be  thrown  away  entirely.  By  the  reforms  of  Diocletian  and 
Constantine  there  was  established  a  new  form  of  imperialism — 
an  absolute  monarchy  divested  of  republican  forms.  Some  of 
their  ideas  of  reform  no  doubt  came  from  the  new  Persian 
monarchy,,  which  was  now  the  greatest  rival  of  Eome.  In  this 
powerful  monarchy  the  Romans  saw  certain  elements  of 
strength  which  they  could  use  in  giving  new  vigor  to  their  own 


456 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


government.     By  adopting  these  Oriental  ideas,  the  Roman 
empire  may  be  said  to  have  become  Orientalized. 

Diocletian  and  his  Policy. — The  first  step  in  the  direction 
of  the  new  imperialism  was  made  by  Diocletian.  Born  of  an 

obscure  family  in  Dal- 
matia  (part  of  Illyri- 
cum),  he  had  risen  by  his 
own  efforts  to  the  high 
position  of  commander  of 
the  Roman  army  in  the 
East.  It  was  here  that 
he  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror by  his  soldiers.  He 
overcame  all  opposition, 
assumed  the  imperial 
power,  and  made  his  resi- 
dence not  at  Rome,  but  in 
Nicomedia,  a  town  in 
Asia  Minor.  His  whole 
policy  was  to  give  dignity 
and  strength  to  the  impe- 
rial authority.  He  made 
of  himself  an  Oriental  monarch.  He  assumed  the  diadem  of 
the  East.  He  wore  gorgeous  robes  of  silk  and  gold  such  as 
were  worn  by  Eastern  rulers.  He  compelled  his  subjects  to 
salute  him  with  low  prostrations,  and  to  treat  him  not  as  a  citi- 
zen, but  as  a  superior  being.  In  this  way  he  hoped  to  make 
the  imperial  office  respected  by  the  people  and  the  army.  The 
emperor  was  to  be  the  sole  source  of  power,  and  as  such  was  to 
be  venerated  and  obeyed. 

The  "Augusti"  and  "Caesars." — Diocletian  saw  that  it  was 
difficult  for  one  man  alone  to  manage  all  the  affairs  of  a  great 
empire.  It  was  sufficient  for  one  man  to  rule  over  the  East, 
and  to  repel  the  Persians.  It  needed  another  to  take  care  of  1 1n- 
West  and  to  drive  back  the  German  invaders.  He  therefore 


DIOCLETIAN 


THE   LATER   EMPIRE  457 

associated  with  him  his  trusted  friend  and  companion  m  arms, 
Maximian.  But  he  was  soon  convinced  that  even  this  division 
of  power  was  not  sufficient.  To  each  of  the  chief  rulers,  who 
received  the  title  of  Augustus,  he  assigned  an  assistant,  who 
received  the  title  of  Ccesar.  The  two  CaBsars  were  Gale'rius  and 
Constan'tius ;  and  they  were  to  be  regarded  as  the  sons  and 
successors  of  the  chief  rulers,  the  Augusti.  Each  Caesar  was  to 
recognize  the  authority  of  his  chief ;  and  all  were  to  be  subject 
to  the  supreme  authority  of  Diocletian  himself.  The  Roman 
world  was  divided  among  the  four  rulers  as  follows: 

THE  EAST  THE  WEST 


DIOCLETIAN  GALERIUS  MAXIMIAN       CONSTANTIUS 

(Augustus)  (Caesar)  (Augustus)  (Caesar) 


Thrace,  Macedonia,      Noricum,  Pannonia,         Italy  and  Spain,  Gaul, 

Asia,  and  Egypt.  and  Moesia.  Africa.  and  Britain. 

The  Last  Persecution  of  the  Christians. — In  the  latter  part 
of  his  reign  Diocletian  was  induced  to  issue  an  edict  of  perse- 
cution against  the  Christians.  It  is  said  that  he  was  led  to  per- 
form this  infamous  act  by  his  assistant  Galerius,  who  had  al- 
ways been  hostile  to  the  new  religion,  and  who  filled  the  em- 
peror's mind  with  stories  of  seditions  and  conspiracies.  An 
order  was  issued  that  all  churches  should  be  demolished,  that 
the  sacred  Scriptures  should  be  burned,  that  all  Christians 
should  be  dismissed  from  public  office,  and  that  those  who 
secretly  met  for  public  worship  should  be  punished  with  death. 
The  persecution  raged  most  fiercely  in  the  provinces  subject  to 
Galerius;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  persecution  should 
be  known  by  his  name  rather  than  by  the  name  of  Diocletian. 

Effects  of  Diocletian's  Policy. — The  general  result  of  the 
new  policy  of  Diocletian  was  to  give  to  the  empire  a  strong  and 
efficient  government.  The  dangers  which  threatened  the  state 
were  met  with  firmness  and  vigor.  A  revolt  in  Egypt  was 


458 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


quelled,  and  the  frontiers  were  successfully  defended  against 
the  Persians  and  the  barbarians.  Public  works  were  con- 
structed, among  which  were  the  great  Baths  of  Diocletian  at 
Rome.  After  a  successful  reign  of  twenty-one  years  Diocletian 
voluntarily  gave  up  his  power,  either  on  account  of  ill  health, 
or  else  to  see  how  his  new  system  would  work  without  his  su- 
pervision. He  retired  to  his  native  province  of  Dalmatia,  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  his  new  palace  at  Salo'na  on  the 
shores  of  the  Adriatic. 

II.     THE  REIGN  OF  CONSTANTINE  (313-337  A.  D.) 

Accession  and  Policy  of  Constantine. — Even  before  the 
death  of  Diocletian,  rivalries  sprang  up  which  led  to  civil  war. 
By  a  succession  of  victories  Con'stantine  established  his  supe- 
riority and  became  the 
sole  and  undisputed  ruler 
of  the  empire.  He  was  a 
man  of  wider  views  than 
Diocletian,  and  had  even 
a  greater  genius  for  or- 
ganization. The  work 
which  Diocletian  began, 
Constantine  completed. 
He  in  fact  gave  to  Ro- 
man imperialism  the  final 
form  which  it  preserved 
as  long  as  the  empire  ex- 
isted, and  the  form  in 
which  it  exerci-c<l  its 
great  influence  upon  the 
modern  governments. 
We  should  remember  that 
it  was  not  so  much  the  early  imperialism  of  Augustus  as  the 
later  iMiprrijilisin  of  Constantine  which  reappeared  in  the  em- 


CONSTANTINE 


Till:    LATKi;     KM  I '1 1IH  459 

pires  of  modern  Europe.  This  fact  will  enable  us  to  understand 
the  greatness  of  Constantino  as  a  statesman  and  a  political  re- 
former. His  policy  was  to  centralize  all  power  in  the  hands  of 
the  chief  ruler;  to  surround  his  person  with  an  elaborate  court 
system  and  an  imposing  ceremonial;  and  to  make  all  officers, 
civil  and  military,  responsible  to  the  head  of  the  empire. 

Conversion  of  Constantine. — Constantino  is  generally 
known  as  the  "first  Christian  emperor."  The  story  of  his 
miraculous  conversion  is  told  by  his  biographer,  Euse'bius.  It 
is  said  that  while  marching  against  his  rival  Maxentius,  lie 
beheld  in  the  heavens  the  luminous  sign  of  the  cross,  inscribed 
with  the  words,  "  By  this  sign  conquer."  As  a  result  of  this 
vision,  he  accepted  the  Christian  religion ;  he  adopted  the 
cross  as  his  battle  standard;  and  from  this  time  he  ascribed 
his  victories  to  God,  and  not  to  himself.  The  truth  of  this 
story  has  been  doubted  by  some  historians ;  but  that  Constan- 
tine looked  upon  Christianity  in  an  entirely  different  light 
from  his  predecessors,  and  that  he  was  an  avowed  friend  of  the 
Christian  church,  cannot  be  denied.  His  mother,  Hel'ena,  was 
a  Christian,  and  his  father,  Constantius,  had  opposed  the  per- 
secutions of  Diocletian  and  Galerius.  He  had  himself,  while 
he  was  ruler  in  only  the  West,  issued  an  edict  of  toleration 
(313  A.  D.)  to  the  Christians  in  his  own  provinces. 

Adoption  of  Christianity. — Constantine  was  therefore  pre- 
pared, when  he  became  the  sole  emperor,  to  reverse  the  policy 
of  Diocletian  and  to  recognize  Christianity  as  the  state  reli- 
gion. How  far  Constantine  himself  was  a  sincere  Christian  it 
is  not  for  us  to  say;  but  no  one  can  doubt  that  the  adoption  of 
Christianity  was  an  act  inspired  by  political  wisdom.  A  large 
part  of  the  empire  was  already  Christian,  and  the  recognition 
of  the  new  religion  gave  stability  to  the  new  government.  Con- 
stantine, however,  in  accepting  Christianity  as  the  state  reli- 
gion, did  not  go  to  the  extreme  of  trying  to  uproot  paganism. 
The  pagan  worship  wa«  still  tolerated,  and  it  was  not  until 
many  years  after  this  time  that  it  was  proscribed  by  the  Chris- 


MAT*    ^o.  19. 


THE    LATKii    KMI'IUH  461 

tian  emperors.  For  the  purpose  of  settling  the  disputes  be- 
tween the  different  Christian  sects,  Constantino  called  (325 
A.  D.)  a  large  council  of  the  clergy  at  Nice  (Niccea,  in  Asia 
Minor),  which  decided  what  should  thereafter  be  regarded  as 
the  orthodox  belief.1 

The  New  Provincial  System. — Another  important  reform 
of  Constantino  was  the  reorganization  of  the  Koman  territory 
in  a  most  systematic  manner.  This  was  based  upon  Diocle- 
tian's division,  but  was  much  more  complete  and  thorough. 
The  whole  empire  was  first  divided  into  four  great  parts,  called 
"  prefectures,"  each  under  a  praetorian  prefect  subject  to  the 
emperor.  Each  prefecture  was  then  subdivided  into  dioceses, 
each  under  a  diocesan  governor,  called  a  vicar,  subject  to  the 
praetorian  prefect.  Each  diocese  was  further  subdivided  into 
provinces,  each  under  a  provincial  governor  called  a  consular, 
president,  duke,  or  count.  Each  province  was  made  up  of  cities 
and  towns,  under  their  own  municipal  governments.  The  new 
divisions  of  the  empire  may  be  indicated  as  follows: 

(1)  The  Prefecture  of  the  East — containing  the  five  dio- 
ceses of  the  East,  Egypt,  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Thrace. 

(2)  The  Prefecture  of  Illyricum — containing  the  two  dio- 
ceses of  Dacia  and  Macedonia. 

(3)  The  Prefecture  of  Italy — containing  the  three  dioceses 
of  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  Africa. 

(4)  The  Prefecture  of  Gaul — containing  the  three  dioceses 
of  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain. 

The  New  Military  Organization. — Scarcely  less  important 
than  the  new  provincial  system  was  the  new  military  organiza- 
tion. One  of  the  chief  defects  of  the  early  empire  was  the  im- 
proper position  which  the  army  occupied  in  the  state.  This  de- 
fect is  seen  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  the  army  was  not 
subordinate  to  the  civil  authority.  We  have  seen  how  the 

1  This  was  the  doctrine  regarding  the  nature  of  the  Son  held  by 
Athanasius,  as  opposed  to  the  doctrine  which  was  held  by  Arius  and 
condemned  as  a  heresy,  receiving  the  name  of  "Arianism." 


462 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


praetorian  guards  really  became  supreme,  and  brought  about 
that  wretched  condition  of  things,  a  military  despotism.  In 
the  next  place,  the  military  power  was  not  separated  from  the 
civil  power.  In  the  early  empire,  every  governor  of  a  province 
had  not  only  civil  authority,  but  he  also  had  command  of  an 
army,  so  that  he  could  resist  the  central  government  if  he  were 
so  disposed.  But  Constantine  changed  all  this.  He  abolished 


ARCH  OF  CONSTANTINE 

the  Roman  garrison  or  praetorian  guard.  He  gave  to  the  terri- 
torial governors  only  a  civil  authority;  and  the  whole  army  was 
organized  under  distinct  officers,  and  made  completely  subject 
to  the  central  power  of  the  empire.  This  change  tended  to  pre- 
vent, on  the  one  hand,  a  military  despotism;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  revolt  of  local  governors. 

The  military  ability  of  Constantine  cannot  be  questioned. 
In  commemoration  of  his  early  victories,  the  senate  erectcvl  in 
the  city  of  Rome  a  splendid  triumphal  arch,  which  stands  to- 
day as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  this  kind  of  architecture. 


THE   LATER   EMPIRE  4G3 

The  New  Capital,  Constantinople. — One  very  important  act 
of  Constantino  was  to  break  away  from  the  traditions  of  the 
old  empire  by  establishing  a  now  capital.  The  old  city  of  Rome 
was  filled  with  the  memories  of  paganism  and  the  relics  of  the 
republic.  It  was  the  desire  of  Constantino  to  give  the  empire 
a  new  center  of  power,  which  should  be  favorably  situated  for 
working  out  his  new  plans,  and  also  for  defending  the  Roman 
territory.  He  selected  for  this  purpose  the  site  of  the  old 
Greek  colony,  Byzantium,  on  the  confines  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
This  site  was  favorable  alike  for  defense,  for  commerce,  and 
for  the  maintenance  of  an  Oriental  system  of  government. 
Constantine  laid  out  the  city  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  adorned 
it  with  new  buildings  and  works  of  art.  The  new  capital  was 
called  the  city  of  Constantine,  or  Constantinople. 

The  New  Court  Organization. — Constantine  believed  with 
Diocletian  that  one  of  the  defects  of  the  old  empire  was  the 
fact  that  the  person  of  the  emperor  was  not  sufficiently  re- 
spected. He  therefore  not  only  adopted  the  diadem  and  the 
elaborate  robes  of  the  Asiatic  monarchs,  as  Diocletian  had  done, 
but  reorganized  the  court  on  a  thoroughly  Eastern  model.  An 
Oriental  court  consisted  of  a  large  retinue  of  officials,  who  sur- 
rounded the  monarch,  who  paid  obeisance  to  him  and  served 
him,  and  who  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  nobles  by  this  service. 
All  the  powers  of  the  monarch  were  exercised  through  these 
court  officials. 

These  Oriental  features  were  now  adopted  by  the  Eoman 
emperor.  The  chief  officers  of  the  court  comprised  the  grand 
chamberlain,  who  had  charge  of  the  imperial  palace;  the  chan- 
cellor, who  had  the  supervision  of  the  court  officials  and  re- 
ceived foreign  ambassadors;  the  quasstor,  who  drew  up  and 
issued  the  imperial  edicts ;  the  treasurer-general,  who  had  con- 
trol of  the  public  revenues ;  the  master  of  the  privy  purse,  who 
managed  the  emperor's  private  estate;  and  the  two  commanders 
of  the  bodyguard.  The  imperial  court  of  Constantine  fur- 
nished the  model  of  the  royal  courts  of  modern  times. 


464  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Effect  of  Constantino's  Reforms. — If  we  should  take  no 
account  of  the  effects  of  Constantine's  reforms  upon  the  lib- 
erties of  the  Roman  people,  we  might  say  that  his  government 
was  an  improvement  upon  that  of  Augustus.  It  gave  new 
strength  ito  the  empire,  and  enabled  it  to  resist  foreign  inva- 
sions. The  empire  was  preserved  for  several  generations  longer 
in  the  West,  and  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  longer  in 
the  East.  But  the  expenses  necessary  to  maintain  such  a 
system,  with  its  elaborate  court  and  its  vast  number  of  officials, 
was  great.  The  taxes  were  oppressive.  The  members  of  every 
city  council  (curiales)  were  held  responsible  for  the  raising  of 
the  revenues.  The  people  were  burdened  and  lost  their  interest 
in  the  state.  Constantine  also,  like  Augustus,  failed  to  make 
a  proper  provision  for  his  successor.  At  his  death  (337  A.  D.) 
his  three  sons  divided  the  empire  between  them,  and  this  divi- 
sion gave  rise  to  another  period  of  quarrels  and  civil  strife. 

III.     THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  CONSTANTINE   (337-395) 

Attempt  to  Restore  Paganism. — The  first  event  of  grave 
importance  after  the  reign  of  Constantine  was  the  attempt  of 
the  Emperor  Julian  (3GO-363  A.  D.)  to  restore  the  old  pagan 
religion,  for  which  attempt  he  has  been  called  "  the  Apostate." 
Julian  was  in  many  respects  a  man  of  ability  and  energy.  He 
repelled  the  Alemanni  who  had  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  made 
a  vigorous  campaign  against  the  Persians.  But  he  was  by  con- 
viction a  pagan,  and  in  the  straggle  between  Christianity  and 
paganism  he  took  the  part  of  the  ancient  faith.  He  tried  to 
undo  the  work  of  Constantine  by  bringing  back  paganism  to  its 
old  position.  He  did  not  realize  that  Christianity  was  the  re- 
ligion of  the  future,  and  was  presumptuous  in  his  belief  that 
he  could  accomplish  that  in  which  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Diocle- 
tian  had  failed.  He  may  not  have  expected  to  uproot  the  new 
religion  onlm-ly;  but  he  hoped  to  deprive  it  of  the  impor- 
tant privileges  which  it  had  already  acquired.  The  religious 


THE    LATKK     KM  I' IKK 


461 


changes  which  IK-  was 'able  to  effect  in  his  brief  reign  were  re- 
versed by  his  successor  Jovian  (363-364  A.  D.),  and  Christianity 
afterward  remained  undisturbed  as  the  religion  of  the  empire. 

Eevolt  of  the  Goths. — After  the  death  of  Jovian  the  empire 
was  divided  between  Valentinian  and  his  younger  brother  Va- 
lens, the  former  ruling  in  the 
West,  and  the  latter  in  the  East. 
Valentinian  died  (375  A.  D.), 
leaving  his  sons  in  control  of  the 
West,  while  Valens  continued  to 
rule  in  the  East  (till  378).  It 
was  during  this  latter  period 
that  a  great  event  occurred 
which  forewarned  the  empire  of 
its  final  doom.  This  event  was 
the  irruption  of  the  Huns  into 
Europe.  This  savage  race, 
emerging  from  the  steppes  of 
Asia,  pressed  upon  the  Goths 
and  drove  them  from  their 
homes  into  the  Roman  territory. 

It  was  now  necessary  for  the  Romans  either  to  resist  the  whole 
Gothic  nation,  which  numbered  a  million  people,  or  else  to  re- 
ceive them  as  friends  and  give  them  settlements  within  the  em- 
pire. The  latter  course  seemed  the  wiser,  and  they  were  ad- 
mitted as  allies,  and  given  new  homes  south  of  the  Danube,  in 
Mcesia  and  Thrace.  But  they  were  soon  provoked  by  the  ill- 
treatment  of  the  Roman  officials,  and  rose  in  revolt,  defeating 
the  Roman  army  in  a  battle  at  Adriano'ple  (378  A.  D.),  in 
which  Valens  himself  was  slain. 

Theodosius  and  the  Final  Division  of  the  Empire  (379- 
395). — Theodo'sius  I.  succeeded  Valens  as  emperor  of  the  East. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  vigor  and  military  ability,  although  his 
reign  was  stained  with  acts  of  violence  and  injustice.  He  con- 
tinued the  policy  of  admitting  the  barbarians  into  the  empire, 

MOREY'S   ANCIENT    HIST. 27 


466 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


but  converted  them  into  useful  and  loyal  subjects.  From  their 
number  he  reenforced  the  ranks  of  the  imperial  armies,  and 
jealously  guarded  them  from  injustice.  When  a  garrison  of 
Gothic  soldiers  was  once  mobbed  in  Thessaloni'ca,  he  resorted 
to  a  punishment  as  revengeful  as  that  of  Marius  and  as  cruel 
as  that  of  Sulla.  He  gathered  the  people  of  this  city  into  the 
circus  to  the  number  of  seven  thousand,  and  caused  them  to  be 
massacred  by  a  body  of  Gothic  soldiers  (390  A.  D.).  For  this 
inhuman  act  he  was  compelled  to  do  penance  by  St.  Ambrose, 

the  bishop  of  Milan — which 
fact  shows  how  powerful  the 
Church  had  become  at  this 
time,  to  compel  an  emperor  to 
obey  its  mandates.  Theodosius 
was  himself  an  ardent  and  or- 
thodox Christian,  and  went  so 

1  ^aS  HB^L-         ^ar  as  to  be  intolerant  of  the 

I    I   \  pagan  religion,  and  even  of  the 

Christian  heretics.  In  spite  of 
his  shortcomings  he  was  an 
able  monarch,  and  has  received 
the  name  of  "  Theodosius  the 
Great."  He  conquered  his 
rivals  and  reunited  for  a  brief 
time  the  whole  Roman  world 
under  a  single  ruler.  But  at  his  death  (395  A.  D.),  he  divided 
the  empire  between  his  two  sons,  Arca'dius  and  Hono'rius,  the 
former  receiving  the  East,  and  the  latter  the  West. 

The  death  of  Theodosius  in  395  marks  an  important  epoch, 
not  only  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  empire  but  in  the  history 
of  European  civilization.  From  this  time  the  two  parts  of  the 
empire — the  Kjist  and  the  West — became  more  and  more  sep- 
arated from  each  other,  until  they  became  at  last  hvo  distinct 
worlds,  having  different  destinies.  The  eastern  part  main- 
tained itself  for  about  a  thousand  years  with  its  capital  at  Con- 


THEODOSTUS 
Statue  at  Barletta,  Italy 


THE   LATER   EMPIRE  467 

stantinople,  until  it  was  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks  (1453 
A.  D.).  The  western  part  was  soon  overrun  and  conquered  by 
the  German  invaders,  who  brought  with  them  new  blood  and 
new  ideas,  and  furnished  the  elements  of  a  new  civilization. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB    REVIEW 

I.  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  DIOCLETIAN. — The  New  Imperialism. — 
Diocletian  and  his  Policy.— The  "Aug-usti"  and   "Caesars."— The 
Last  Persecution  of  the  Christians. — Effects  of  Diocletian's  Policy. 

II.  THE  REIGN  OF  CONSTANTINE. — Accession  and  Policy  of  Con- 
stantine. — Conversion  of  Constantine. — Adoption  of  Christianity. 
— The  New  Provincial  System. — The  New  Military  Organization. — 
The  New  Capital,  Constantinople. — The  New  Court  Organization.— 
Effect  of  Constantine's  Reforms. 

III.  THE    SUCCESSORS    OF    CONSTANTINE. — Attempt    to    Restore 
Paganism. — Revolt  of  the  Goths. — Theodosius  and  the  Final  Di- 
vision of  the  Empire. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Pelham,  Bk.  VII.,  Ch.  1,  "From  the  Accession  of  Diocletian  to 
the  Death  of  Theodosius"  (18). l 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  70,  "The  Epoch  of  Diocletian"; 
Ch.  73,  "Reign  of  Julian"  (18). 

Gibbon,  Ch.  17,  "Foundation  of  Constantinople";  Ch.  23,  "The 
Religion  of  Julian"  (18). 

Stanley,  Lect.  6,  "The  Emperor  Constantine";  Lect.  2,  "The 
Council  of  Nicaea"  (21). 

Milman,  History  of  Christianity,  Ch.  3,  "Foundation  of  Constan- 
tinople" (21). 

Seeley,  Essay,  "The  Later  Empire"   (18). 

Seig-nobos,  Ch.   24,  "Christianity"   (18). 

Munro,  Souro^-Hook,  Part  X.,  "Christiaaity^and  Stoicism"   (25). 

irrhe   figure   in   parenthesis   refers   to   the   number  of   the   topic   in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


I.  FORVMS 


ROME 

Under  the  Later  Emperors 


i. 

9.  Julius 

3.  Augustus 

4.  Nerva 

:  \V,,,H.sian 

6.  Trajan 


II.  TEMPLES 

7.  Jupiter  Capltollnii 

8.  Qulrinus 

9.  Minerva 

10.  Pantheon 

11.  Trajan 

12.  Hope 

13.  Fortune 

14.  Ceres 

15.  Diana 

16.  Honor  and  Virtue 
IT.  Divine  Claudius 
18.  Venus  and  Rome 


III.  BATHS 

So!  Alexan'rlna. 
SI.  Titus 
99.  Trajan 
S3.  ConsUntlne 
It    MMlMM 
95.  Caracalla 


IT.    THEATERS 

9«.  Pompey 

97.  Bait,™ 

98.  Marcellas 


T.  AMPHITHEATERS 

9».  Flavian  (Colos«eum) 
80.  MUlUry 


VIII.   BASILICAS 

37.  Julia 

38.  Constantino 

39.  Ulpian 
40. 


IX.  PLACES  OF  ASSEM- 

BLY 

41.  SlteoftheComltinm 

42.  Curia,     or     Senate 

43.  S«?pta  JulialVoting) 

X.  ARCHES 

44.  Titus 

45.  Constantino 

-if..  Septlmlus  Severoa 

XI.  COLUMNS 

47.  Trajan 

48.  Antonlno 

•I  '.i.    M;.r 


XII.  TOMBS 

50.  Augustus 

51.  Hadrian 
62.  Sclplo 

XIII.  CAMPS 

53.  Pretorlaa 

54.  Agrlppa 

XIT.    MISCELLANEOUS 

55.  Arz 

56.  Palace  of  the  Ceaara 
67.  Emporium 


408 


PortaJ>ecumanc(i 


Ziburtina 


a  Appia 


CHAPTER    XXXI 

DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES  OF  THE  ROMAN   EMPIRE 

I.    THE  POLITICAL  SYSTEM  OF  ROME 

Unity  of  the  Ancient  World. — Before  we  consider  the  fate 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  changes  that  resulted  from  the 
barbarian  invasions,  let  us  take  a  brief  review  of  the  most  dist 
tinguishing  features  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  first  thing 
that  we  notice  is  the  fact  fliat  Rome  brought  under  her  author- 
it)'  a  great  part  of  the  civilized  world.  The  great  nations  which 
had  flourished  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea — Car- 
thage, Macedonia,  Greece,  the  nations  of  Asia  Minor,  Phoenicia, 
Judea,  and  Egypt — all  became  parts  of  one  universal  empire. 
The  ideas  and  customs,  the  art  and  institutions  of  these  coun- 
tries were  taken  up,  and  notwithstanding  their  many  dif- 
ferences were  welded  together  into  what  was  practically  one 
civilization.  The  more  barbarous  peoples,  also,  which  she 
conquered — like  those  of  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain — were 
transformed  by  her  civilizing  influence.  Rome  thus  accom- 
plished a  result  never  before  attained,  to  the  same  extent,  by 
any  other  ancient  people — the  establishment  of  a  world-unity 
in  government,  law,  and  religion. 

The  Roman  Municipal  System. — No  nation  before  the  Ro- 
mans had  shown  such  a  genius  for  political  organization,  or 
had  developed  a  system  of  government  so  well  suited  to  main- 
tain an  authority  over  a  wide  territory.  In  looking  at  this 
political  system  we  find  that  its  fundamental  clement  was  the 
city.  The  Roman  empire  was.  in  fact,  a  collection  of  cities. 
The  government  which  was  established  was  a  government  over 

470 


DISTINCTIVE    FEATURES    OF    THE    KMI'IUE         471 

cities.  Rome  succeeded  in  giving  to  her  cities  not  only  local 
self-government,  but  also,  in  great  measure,  a  uniform  organ- 
ization, patterned  after  that  of  the  central  city.  Each  city 
had  its  senate,  or  council  (curia),  something  like  that  of  Home 
itself;  its  body  of  magistrates  (duumviri,  and  other  officers), 
like  the  magistrates  of  the  old  republic;  and  in  later  times, 
its  defender  of  the  people  (defensor  populi),  like  the  old  plebe- 
ian tribune.  The  cities  throughout  the  empire  may  thus  be  re- 
garded as  reflections  of  the  central  city  of  Rome ;  and  they  were 
bound  to  it  by  bonds  of  sympathy  as  well  as  by  political  ties. 
The  Roman  Provincial  System.— The  next  feature  of  the 
political  organization  was  the  provincial  system,  by  which  the 
cities  were  bound  together  under  a  common  authority.  This 
system  was  developed  by  the  Romans,  and  passed  through  suc- 
irssive  stages.  In  the  first  place, -under  theire^blic  we  see  a 
number  of  cities  in  a  certain  tof^^^J^mped  together  and 
placed  under  the  fluthorit^oF^^overnQr  (proprcetor  or  procon- 
sul) having  civufei^rnjitary  power,  and  also  a  quaestor,  hav- 
ing charge  of  the  finances — both  officers  being  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  senate.  In  the  next  place,  under  the  early  empire 
this  senatorial  supervision — which  was  still  retained  in  what 
were  called  the  "  senatorial  provinces  " — was  supplemented  by 
the  direct  supervision  of  the  emperor  over  other  provinces, 
called  "  imperial  provinces."  In  the  latter  case  the  province 
was  governed  by  a  military  commander  (legatus)  appointed  by 
the  emperor,  and  accompanied  by  a  financial  officer  (procura- 
tor). Finally,  under  the  later  empire,  the  military  authority 
was  taken  away  from  the  governor ;  the  whole  territory  of  the 
empire  was  arranged  in  divisions  and  subdivisions  (prefectures, 
dioceses,  and  provinces)  each  under  a  civil  governor  (prefect, 
vicar,  or  praeses) — each  governor  being  subject  to  his  immediate 
superior,  and  all  being  finally  responsible  to  the  emperor  him- 
self. The  army  was  placed  under  a  distinct  set  of  imperial 
officers.  By  this  arrangement  the  central  authority  was  main- 
tained throughout  the  whole  Roman  domain.  For  purposes 


472  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

of  administration  over  a  large  territory,  it  was  perhaps  the 
most  effective  system  ever  devised. 

The  Roman  Imperial  Idea. — The  Roman  empire  found  its 
highest  unity  in  the  person  of  the  emperor.  The  cities  and 
the  various  territorial  governments  were  all  bound  together 
under  his  supreme  authority.  We  must  keep  in  mind  the  fact 
that  the  Roman  idea  of  imperialism  was  different  from  the  old 
Oriental  idea  of  monarchy.  The  Oriental  idea  was  that  the 
monarch  was  the  representative  of  divine  authority  on  earth. 
It  was  essentially  theocratic.  The  Roman  idea,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  that  the  emperor  was  the  representative  of  the  state, 
the  supreme  magistrate  of  the  people.  It  was,  in  a  certain 
sense,  democratic.  We  are  able  to  see  this  by  tracing  the  growth 
of  the  imperial  idea.  The  imperium  of  the  early  kings  was  a 
delegated  power,  derived  from  the  people  and  sanctioned  by  a 
special  law  (lex  de  imperio).  When  the  ancient  king  exercised 
his  power  in  a  despotic  way,  he  was  driven  out  of  the  city ;  and 
the  imperium  was  conferred  upon  several  magistrates.  Again, 
when  the  republican  magistrates  exercised  this  power  selfishly  in 
the  interests  of  the  aristocracy,  the  people  revolted  and  placed 
the  imperium  once  more  in  the  hands  of  a  single  magistrate. 
And  they  did  not  rest  until  they  found  a  ruler  who  could 
be  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  whole  people.  Such 
representatives  they  found  in  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus. 

The  emperor  was  looked  upon  as  the  first  man  of  the  state 
(princeps  civitatis,  not  merely  princeps  senatus) .  His  author- 
ity was  based  upon  the  imperium  and  the  tribunician  power; 
that  is,  he  was  regarded  as  both  the  supreme  magistrate  and 
the  defender  of  the  people.  The  imperial  idea  found  ii>  hi^hr-i 
expression  in  the  rule  of  tho  Antonines.  This  idea  was,  it  i- 
true,  somewhat  modified  by  the  Oriental  influence  under  Dio 
cletian  and  Constantino.  But  still  the  distinctive  idea  of  R«> 
man  imperialism  was  this,  that  the  emperor  ]><>rsonifi<><l  the 
authority  of  the  state;  and  upon  this  idea  was  based  the  maxim, 
"  the  will  of  the  prince  has  the  force  of  law." 


DISTINCTIVE   FEATURES   OF   THE    EMPIRE        473 
II.    THE  LEGAL  SYSTEM  OF  KOME 

Universality  of  the  Roman  Law. — The  greatest  addition 
which  the  Romans  made  to  the  civilization  of  the  ancient  world 
was  no  doubt  their  system  of  law.  This  does  not  mean,  of 
course,  that  the  Romans  were  the  first  people  who  ever  had 
laws.  Every  ancient  people  possessed  a  certain  body  of  laws. 
Even  among  the  early  Babylonians  we  have  seen  the  evidence 
of  legal  customs  relating  to  property  and  contracts,  as  well  as 
the  remains  of  written  documents  by  which  legal  transactions 
were  performed.  The  Egyptians,  the  Jews,  and  the  Greeks  pos- 
sessed their  own  national  laws.  But, the  Bomans  were  the 
first  to  develop  a  universal  system  of  law,  applicable  not  only 
to  all  the  people  of  the  empire,  but  to  all  times  and  places. 
With  every  enlargement  of  the  Roman  state,  there  was  an  ex- 
pansion of  their  system  of  law.  The  expansion  of  the  law  was 
at  first,  no  doubt,  due  merely  to  political  and  commercial  ex- 
pediency; but  it  afterward  recognized  the  rights  of  man  as  man 
and  the  principles  of  natural  justice,  and  this  gave  it  the  char- 
acter of  a  universal  system. 

Extension  of  the  Franchise. — One  of  the  methods  by  which 
the  Roman  law  was  broadened  was  by  the  extension  of  the  fran- 
chise, or  the  rights  of  citizenship.  We  have  seen  that  the  civil 
rights  of  citizenship  comprised:  (1)  the  commercium,  or  the 
rights  growing  out  of  trade  (as  the  rights  of  property  and  con- 
tract); (2)  the  conubium,  or  the  right  growing  out  of  domestic 
relations  (as  the  paternal  power  and  the  right  of  inheritance). 
These  rights  were  at  first  restricted  to  the  original  Roman  citi- 
zens. The  extension  of  the  franchise  began  by  granting  the 
commercium  to  outsiders — 'first  to  the  plebeians,  then  to  the 
Latins,  and  then  under  the  name  of  the  "  Latin  right "  to  the 
people  of  Italy  and  the  provinces.  The  granting  of  the  conu- 
bium followed,  as  the  exclusive  spirit  of  the  Romans  passed 
away,  until  finally  the  full  rights  of  citizenship  were  given  to 
all  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  world.  This  gradual 


474  THE    KOMAN   WOKLD 

extension  of  the  franchise  shows  that  the  fundamental  policy  of 
Kome  was  not  conquest,  but  incorporation.  The  conquered 
people  became  not  mere  Roman  subjects,  but  Roman  citizens, 
sharing  in  all  the  privileges  granted  by  the  Roman  law. 

The  Jus  Gentium. — Another  and  more  important  way  in 
which  the  Roman  law  was  broadened,  was  by  the  development 
of  a  new  body  of  legal  principles,  which  grew  up  by  the  side 
of  the  old  law.  The  old  law  was  called  the  jus  civile,  and  was 
based  upon  the  XII.  Tables.  Being  an  old  law  it  was  narrow, 
and  soon  became  antiquated;  it  did  not  meet  the  needs  of  a 
growing  community.  Besides,  this  old  law  applied  only  to  Ro- 
man citizens,  and  did  not  protect  any  persons  before  they  had 
received  the  franchise.  Now  in  early  times  before  the  exten- 
sion of  the  franchise,  there  were  many  persons  in  Italy  who 
were  not  yet  citizens,  but  were  subject-foreigners  (peregrini). 
The  Romans  were  obliged  to  trade  with  these  foreigners;  and 
hence  disputes  would  arise  between  the  Romans  and  such  for- 
eigners, or  between  the  foreigners  living  in  different  cities — 
which  disputes  could  not  be  settled  by  the  old  Roman  law. 
To  settle  such  disputes  the  Romans  appointed  a  new  praetor 
(prcetor  peregrinus);  and  this  praetor  was  allowed  to  decide  such 
cases  in  the  way  that  seemed  most  fair  and  just,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  old  law.  In  the  provinces,  also,  the  governors  were 
allowed  to  settle  similar  disputes.  From  the  various  decisions 
of  the  "  foreign  praetors  "  and  provincial  governors,  there  grew 
up  an  extensive  body  of  legal  principles,  broader  and  more 
equitable  than  the  old  law.  This  new  body  of  law  was  called 
the  jus  gentium;  and  it  formed  a  great  part  of  Roman  juris- 
prudence, far  more  important  in  fact  than  the  old  jus  civile. 

Scientific  Nature  of  the  Roman  Law. — By  the  extension  of 
the  old  law  and  especially  by  the  development  of  the  new  law, 
every  free  inhabitant  of  the  Roman  world  could  secure  his 
civil  rights  in  a  court  of  justice.  These  influences  made  the 
li'uMum  law  tin-  hnuidesl  system  of  jurisprudence  lh;ii  (he  world 
1 1 ;i( I  \vt  §een,  I'.m  there  was  another  influence  at  work  which 


DISTINCTIVE    FEATURES    OF    THE    EMPIRE        475 

gave  to  the  law  a  truly  scientific  character.  This  was  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Roman  jurists.  These  men  wrote  treatises  upon  the 
law,  and  explained  its  real  meaning.  They  gathered  together 
i  he  vast  mass  of  legal  rules,  and  reduced  them  to  a  system. 
Being  schooled  in  the  principles  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  they 
believed  that  law  was  founded  upon  natural  justice  and  the 
universal  rights  of  man.  By  reducing  the  law  to  a  system  and 
by  discovering  general  principles  that  should  govern  it,  they 
gave  to  it  the  character  of  a  science.  These  men — like  Gaius, 
Ulpian,  Paullus,  Modesti'nus,  and  Papinian — represent  the 
highest  genius  of  the  Roman  people.  By  their  writings  they 
built  up  a  noble  system  of  jurisprudence,  suited  not  only  to  the 
\v; nits  of  the  Roman  empire,  but  to  the  needs  of  those  nations 
which  grew  up  after  the  Roman  empire  passed  away. 

III.     CHRISTIANITY  AND  THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH 

The  Spread  of  Christianity. — The  Roman  empire  came  to 
be  one,  not  only  in  government  and  law,  but  also  in  religion ; 
and  this  religion  was  Christianity.  But  it  was  a  long  time 
after  its  first  appearance  in  the  remote  province  of  Judea  that 
Christianity  was  accepted  as  the  religion  of  the  Roman  world. 
The  ancient  Romans  had  already  a  religion  of  their  own.  This 
had  grown  out  of  an  early  ancestor  worship  and  a  polytheistic 
nature  worship.  With  the  extension  of  their  power  over  other  \ 
peoples,  the  Romans  became  tolerant  of  foreign  religions;  and 
had  even  accepted  many  of  the  features  of  these  foreign  sys- 
tems. They  accepted  the  Greek  notions  regarding  the  nature 
of  the  gods;  and  adopted  some  of  the  elements  of  the  Syrian 
and  Egyptian  religions.  The  only  spot  in  the  empire  where  a 
pure  monotheism  existed,  was  in  Judea;  but  even  here  the 
spiritual  idea  of  religion  had  come  to  be  obscured  by  an  ex- 
cessive attention  to  external  forms  and  ceremonies. 

Christianity  arose  from  Judaism;  but  it  emphasized  the  fact 
that  true  religion  consists  in  a  spiritual  life,  based  upon  love 


476  THE    KOMAN    WOKLD 

to  God  and  love  to  man.  The  new  religion  spread  from  Judea 
to  Syria,  to  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  and  Greece, 
and  finally  to  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  early 
progress  of  Christianity  was  in  the  face  of  opposition  and  per- 
secutions. These  persecutions  were  excused  on  the  ground  of 
political  necessity.  But  in  spite  of  all  apologies,  the  cruel  and 
revolting  barbarities  which  accompanied  them  must  always  re- 
main a  dark  blot  upon  the  history  of  the  empire.  The  new 
religion  could  not  be  destroyed;  it  continued  to  spread,  and  to 
exercise  its  humanizing  influence  upon  all  the  phases  of  Roman 
life.  After  Christianity  became  practically  the  religion  of  the 
Roman  people,  it  was,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  accepted  as 
the  religion  of  the  state  (p.  459). 

Growth  of  the  Church  Organization. — With  the  spread  of 
Christianity  throughout  the  provinces  there  grew  up  an  eccle- 
siastical organization,  patterned  somewhat  upon  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  empire.  For  example,  in  the  town  we  Mi  id  the 
parish  church  presided  over  by  the  parish  priest.  A  number  of 
parish  churches  were  grouped  together  into  a  diocese  and 
governed  by  a  bishop.  A  number  of  dioceses  were  united  into 
a  province  under  a  higher  church  officer,  called  a  metropolitan 
or  archbishop.  In  the  East  a  few  of  the  metropolitans — like 
those  of  Constantinople,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria — rose  above 
the  other  bishops  in  dignity  and  authority,  and  became  recog- 
nized as  "  patriarchs."  In  the  West  the  bishop  of  Rome  exer- 
cised even  greater  authority,  and  was  recognized  as  the  chief 
bishop.  In  this  way  there  grew  up  in  the  church  territorial 
divisions  and  subdivisions,  and  gradations  of  authority,  simi- 
lar to  those  that  existed  in  the  empire.  And  so  it  came 
about  that  while  the  Roman  empire  was  becoming  ChristianT 
ized,  Rome  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  head  and  center  of 
( 'liristianity. 

Development  of  an  Ecclesiastical  Culture. — As  the  dumb 
;ic(juiiv<l  M  distinct  nr<j;mi/;it  ion  of  its  own.  modrlrd  ;tft"r  that 
<>f  tin-  empire,  so  it  acquired  a  distinct  culture  of  its  own,  de- 


DISTINCTIVE    FEATURES    OF    TIIIO    KMIMIHO 


477 


rived  to  a  certain  extent  from  that  of  the  empire.  In  the  liist 
place,  its  architecture  was  borrowed  from  Rome.  The  early 
churches  were  modeled  after  the  Roman  basilica — tin-  hall  of 
justice  or  court  house.  But  when  the  basilica  was  consecrated 
as  a  Christian  church,  it  acquired  a  sacred  character  that  dis- 
tinguished it  from  the  secular  building.  In  the  next  place,  the 


INTERIOR  OF  THE  BASILICA  OF  TRAJAN   (Restoration) 

language  of  the  church  was  the  language  of  the  empire.  This 
language  was  in  the  eastern  provinces  principally  Greek,  and 
in  the  western  provinces  Latin;  so  that  the  eastern  churches" 
used  the  Greek  language  in  their  literature  and  ritual,  while 
the  western  churches  used  the  Latin  language.  Moreover,  the 
thought  of  the  church  was  greatly  influenced  by  the  modes|of 
thinking  which  prevailed  in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  The 
Greek  mind  was  essentially  speculative  and  philosophical;  and 


478  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

so  the  eastern  or  Greek  churches  busied  themselves  in  discuss- 
ing difficult  questions  regarding  the  nature  of  the  Father  and 
the  Son  and  their  relations  to  each  other.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Roman  mind  was  more  practical  and  legal,  and  so  the 
western  or  Latin  churches  were  more  concerned  with  questions 
relating  to  the  divine  government  and  the  relations  of  man  to 
that  government. 

By  such  means  the  church  acquired  an  art,  a  literature,  and 
a  philosophy  which,  though  derived  in  a  certain  sense  from  the 
empire,  came  to  be  distinctly  ecclesiastical.  The  highest  culture 
of  the  church  is  seen  in  the  writings  of  "  the  Fathers."  Among 
the  Greek  Fathers  were  Athanasius,  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
who  formulated  the  orthodox  creed;  and  Chrysostom,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  the  most  eloquent  preacher  of  his  age. 
Chief  among  the  Latin  Fathers  were  Jerome,  who  first  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures  into  Latin  (the  Vulgate)  ;  and  Augustine, 
bishop  of  Hippo  in  Africa,  who  wrote  the  "  City  of  God." 

IV.    WEAKNESS  OF  THE  EMPIRE 

Defects  of  the  Imperial  System. — With  all  the  strength 
which  the  empire  acquired  by  its  centralized  government,  its 
universal  law,  and  its  organized  church,  it  yet  contained  certain 
elements  of  weakness  which  led  to  its  final  dissolution.  One  of 
these  elements  of  weakness  may  be  found  in  the  defects  of  the 
imperial  system  itself.  The  purpose  of  the  empire  was  to 
create  a  government  which  would  insure  the  welfare  of  the 
people.  This  purpose  had,  to  a  great  extent,  been  realized  in 
the  policy  of  the  best  of  the  emperors.  Still  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment, even  in  its  highest  form,  was  scarcely  more  than  a 
beneficent  paternalism  in  which  every! liin.ir  was  done  for  the 
peopl<-.  Mm]  Die  people  could  do  nothing  for  themselves./  The 
people  had  no  share  in  making  Hie  laws  or  in  cirri  ing  the  of- 
ficers of  the  state,  and  tli«-y  lost  all  interest  in  public  affairs. 
The  government  of  the  empire,  then,  was  defective  because 


DISTINCTIVE    FEATURES    OF    THE    EMPIRE        479 

it  had  no  democratic  basis.)  It  might  be  a  government  for 
the  people;  but  it  could  not  be  a  government  by  the  people. 
In  fact,  democratic  institutions  were  practically  impossible 
because  (1)  all  the  people  of  such  an  extensive  territory  could 
not  assemble  in  one  place;  and  (2)  the  Romans  had  not  dis- 
covered the  modern  principle  of  "  representation." 

Burdens  of  Taxation. — Another  element  of  weakness  may 
be  found  in  the  grinding  system  of  taxation  which  existed  in 
the  later  empire.  The  old  abuses  which  prevailed  in  the  re- 
public had  been  corrected  by  the  reforms  of  Augustus  and  his 
successors.  But  the  later  empire,  with  its  Orientalized  form 
of  government  and  its  elaborate  system  of  bureaus  and  officials, 
required  a  vast  amount  of  money  to  support  it.  This  money 
had  to  be  raised  from  the  people.  The  duty  of  collecting  the 
taxes  rested  upon  the  curiahs,  that  is,  the  governing  class  in 
the  cities,  which  consisted  of  those  holding  a  certain  amount 
of  land.  If  the  curiaJes  could  not  collect  the  money  from  the 
lower  classes,  they  were  obliged  to  furnish  it  from  their  own 
fortunes.  They  could  not  evade  this  responsibility.  They 
could  not  abandon  their  position  for  that  of  the  law  or  the 
clergy  or  the  army;  nor  could  they  quit  the  city  without  the 
permission  of  the  provincial  governor.  They  became  prac- 
tically an  hereditary  class,  upon  which  rested  largely  the  finan- 
cial weight  of  the  empire.  The  heavy  exactions  laid  upon  the 
people  for  the  support  of  the  government  tended  to  the  im- 
poverishment of  the  empire. 

Degradation  of  the  Peasantry. — Still  another  cause  of  the 
weakness  of  the  later  empire  was  the  degradation  of  the  free 
agricultural  classes,  or  the  small  landowners  and  the  free  la- 
borers. The  condition  of  the  slaves,  it  is  true,  was  consider- 
ably improved  during  the  later  period.  They  were  better  pro- 
tected by  the  law,  and  they  obtained  their  freedom  more  easily 
than  before.  But  even  when  freed  they  were  obliged  to  obtain 
their  living  by  settling  upon  the  estates  of  the  great  landlords, 
who  granted  them  a  little  plot  of  ground  on  condition  of  man- 


480  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

ual  labor  or  a  certain  amount  of  produce.  Here  they  lived 
from  one  generation  to  another;  and  by  being  attached  to  the 
soil  they  became  serfs,  or  coloni.  This  movement  was  no  doubt 
beneficial  to  the  slave  population.  But  the  burdens  resting 
upon  the  small  landowner  and  the  free  laborer  compelled  them 
also  to  occupy  this  servile  condition.  The  lifting  up  of  the 
slaves  was  thus  accompanied  by  the  lowering  of  the  free  peas- 
ant classes.  In  this  way  a  large  part  of  the  Roman  people  was 
reduced  practically  to  the  condition  of  serfdom.  And  this  class 
of  serfs,  or  coloni,  was  augmented  by  the  settlement  of  bar- 
bariims  within  the  limits  of  the  empire. 

Decay  of  the  Population. — Still  further,  the  native  popula- 
tion of  the  empire  was  continually  decreasing  in  numbers.  The 
vitality  of  the  Roman  people  was  becoming  exhausted.  The 
upper  classes  were  worn  out  by  a  life  of  luxury  and  indolence. 
Tin-  lower  classes  were  exhausted  by  a  constant  struggle  for 
existence  under  unfavorable  conditions.  Famines,  plagues,  and 
wars  had  decimated  the  population.  The  armies,  notwith- 
standing their  excellent  organization,  could  not  be  replenished 
by  vi^m-uus  native  soldiers.  Domestic  life,  too,  had  lost  much 
of.  its  sanctity ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  empire,  lost  one  of 
the  conditions  of  national  growth  and  prosperity.  'Human  life 
itself  was  often  held  in  light  esteem.  All  these  causes  led  to  the 
depopulation  and  exhaustion  of  the  later  empire.  It  has  been 
aptly  said  that  Rome  "  perished  for  want  of  men." 

Pressure  of  the  Barbarians. — With  such  elements  of  in- 
ternal weakness  we  cannot  wonder  that  the  Roman  world  fell  a 
prey  to  the  barbarians  from  the  north.  The  pressure  of  these 
barbarians  was  met  sometimes  by  a  policy  of  active  resistance, 
and  sometimes  by  a  policy  of  passive  submission.  We  have  al- 
p-ad y  seen  how  they  were  admitted  within  the  boundaries  of 
tin-  empire,  receiving  permanent  settlements,  sometimes  ab- 
sorhed  into  the  armies  and  even  into  the  iroveniment  (p.  •!">:'>). 
This  "infiltration"  of  a  foreign  p<>;ml  it  i<>n  into  the  empire 
tended  not  only  to  dilute  the  life  of  the  Roman  people,  but 


DISTINCTIVE    FEATURES    OF    Till;    IvMI'IKE        481 

also  to  efface  the  boundaries  between  the  Roman  and  the  bar- 
barian world.  As  a  result  of  all  this,  the  subsequent  history 
of  the  empire  is  closely  related  to  the  history  of  the  barbarians 
who  found  their  way  into  the  Roman  provinces. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  THE   POLITICAL   SYSTEM   OF   ROME. — Unity   of   the   Ancient 
World. — The  Roman  Municipal  System. — The  Roman  Provincial 
System. — The  Roman   Imperial  Idea. 

II.  THE  LEGAL  SYSTEM  OF  ROME. — Universality  of  the  Roman 
Law. — Extension    of    the    Franchise. — The    Jus    Gentium. — The 
Scientific  Nature  of  the  Roman  Law. 

III.  CHRISTIANITY  AND  THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH. — The  Spread  of 
Christianity. — Growth  of  the  Church  Organization. — Development 
of  an  Ecclesiastical  Culture. 

IV.  WEAKNESS  OF  THE  EMPIRE. — Defects  of  the  Imperial  Sys- 
tem.— Burdens    of    Taxation. — Degradation    of    the    Peasantry. — 
Decay  of  the  Population. — Pressure  of  the  Barbarians. 

REFERENCES    FOR    READING 

Curteis,  Ch.  1,  "Administrative  and  Legal  Unity";  Ch.  2,  "The 
Christian  Church  in  the  First  Four  Centuries"  (24). l 

Merivale,  General  History,  Ch.  80,  "Reflections  upon  the  History 
of  Rome"  (18). 

-  Empire,  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  479-496,  "Symptoms  of  Decline  in  the 
Empire"  (18). 

Bury,  Students'  Empire,  Ch.  3,  "The  Roman  World  under  the 
Empire." 

-  Later  Empire,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "Christianity  and  Paganism"; 
Ch.    2,    "Influence    of    Christianity    on    Society"    (the    early 
church);  Ch.  3,  "Disintegration  of  the  Empire"  (24). 

Milman,  History  of  Christianity.  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  1,  "The  Roman 
Empire  under  Christianity"  (21). 

Shahan,  Beginnings  of  Christianity  (21). 

Healy,  Valerian  Persecutions   (21). 

Hodgkin,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  9,  "Causes  of  the  Fall  of  the  Western 
Empire"  (24). 

Seeley,  Essay,  "Proximate  Causes  of  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire" (18). 

Dill,  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire, 
Bk.  II.,  Ch.  2, '"Decay  of  the  Middle  Class"  (society  in  the 
fourth  century)  (19). 

Translations  and  Reprints,  Vol.  IV.,  No.  1,  "The  Early  Christian 
Persecutions"  (25), 

1PThe   figure   in   parenthesis   refers   to   the   number  of   the  topic  in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  V,    THE  DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  EOMAN  EMPIEE 
(395-800  A,  D.) 


CHAPTER    XXXII 

THE  GERMAN  OCCUPATION  OF  THE  WEST 
I.    THE  GERMAN^  AND  THEIR  INSTITUTIONS 

The  Barbarian  World. — We  are  now  prepared  to  see  how 
the  Roman  empire,  which  had  played  such  an  important  part 
in  the  history  of  the  ancient  world,  was  broken  up,  and  how 
it  became  the  foundation  of  a  new  society  and  of  new  states. 
We  shall  see  the  western  provinces  conquered  by  the  German 
tribes,  and  transformed  into  new  kingdoms.  We  shall  see  the 
imperial  power  still  preserved  in  the  East,  but  passing  into  a 
state  of  decline.  We  shall  also  see  the  imperial  title  revived  in 
one  of  the  German  kingdoms,  resulting  in  the  establishment 
of  what  was  practically  a  new  Roman  empire  in  the  West. 

This  breaking  up  of  the  old  empire  and  the  transformation 
of  Europe  were  due  largely  to  the  encroachments  of  the  bar- 
barian world  upon  the  Roman  world.  For  our  purpose  we  may 
group  the  peoples  of  this  outside  barbarian  world  into  three 
great  branches:  (1)  the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  peoples,  on  the 
north  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube;  (2)  the  Slavic  or  Slavonian 
peoples,  in  the  central  part  of  what  is  now  European  Russia; 
and  (3)  the  peoples  in  the  ceninil  ,-iinl  western  p;irt>  of  Asia, 
whom  we  call,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  Scythians  or  Tura- 
Tlie  most  barbarous  of  these  peoples  were  the  Tura- 
482 


GERMAN    OCCUPATION    OF    THE    WEST  483 

nians,  of  which  the  Huns  were  the  most  warlike  and  aggressive. 
The  Slavs  weiv  more  peaceful  and  at  this  time  did  not  make 
any  important  incursions  into  the  empire.  The  Germans  were 
nearest  to  the  Roman  borders,  and  also  approached  most  nearly 
to  the  civilized  stage.  They  comprised  many  tribes — the  Goths, 
the  Vandals,  the  Alemanni,  the  Burgundians,  the  Lombards, 
the  Franks,  the  Saxons,  and  others  of  less  importance.  It  was 
these  Germans  who  now  made  the  first  inroads  into  the  empire, 
'  and  whose  characteristics  are  the  most  important  for  us  to 
consider. 

German  Characteristics. — Our  knowledge  of  the  early  Ger- 
mans is  derived  mostly  from  Ca?sar  and  Tacitus.  They  are 
described  by  these  writers  as  a  vigorous  and  warlike  race,  of 
gigantic  stature,  with  fierce  blue  eyes  and  long  yellow  hair,  sim- 
ple in  their  social  and  political  life,  and  inspired  with  the 
spirit  of  liberty  and  independence.  They  differed  from  the 
more  civilized  Romans  in  their  manners  and  customs,  in  their 
political  organization,  their  laws,  and  their  religion.  They 
were,  in  fact,  in  that  primitive  stage  of  progress  in  which  the 
Romans,  as  well  as  the  Greeks,  were  at  the  beginning  of  the 
historical  period.  Their  most  striking  characteristics  were 
their  love  of  liberty  and  their  spirit  of  personal  loyalty. 
Tacitus  tells  us  that  their  chiefs  ruled  by  persuasion  rather 
than  by  authority.  The  chief  was  wont  to  surround  himself 
with  a  following  (comitatus)  of  young  men,  who  voluntarily  at- 
tached themselves  to  him,  and  shared  in  his  dangers  and  glory. 

The  German  Political  System. — The  unit  of  the  German 
political  society  was  not  the  city,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Romans, 
but  the  village  community  (mark,,  or  pagus).  The  Germans, 
had  been  a  nomadic  people  living  by  war  and  the  chase, 

re  now  beginning  to  settle  down  to  an  agricultural  life.  The 
most  primitive  form  of  agricultural  life  is  the  village  commu- 
nity— which  is  simply  a  collection  of  families,  settled  upon  a 
piece  of  land,  and  organized  into  a  little  body  politic.  The 
land  upon  which  the  people  settled  was,  for  the  most  part,  held 


484  THE   ROMAN   WORLD 

in  common — upon  it  every  one  could  pasture  1  -ks  and 

herds.  Tin-  arable  land  was  divided  into  strips  allotted 

earh  year  to  the  householders  for  cultivation.  r\  id  upon 

which  the  house  and  garden  were  situated,  was  assigned  per- 
manently to  each  family.  Thus  we  have  three  kinds  of  land — 
the  common  or  waste  land,  the  arable  land,  and  the  house  land. 

The  village  community  was  governed  by  an  assembly  com- 
posed of  all  freemen  capable  of  bearing  arms;  and  hence  the 
village  was  a  pure  democracy.  It  was  presided  over  by  a  head- 
man, or  village  chief  (gerefa,  or  reeve),  who  was  chosen  by  the 
people  and  who  led  them  to  war.  A  group  of  villages  formed 
a  "  hundred,"  which  also  had  its  democratic  assembly  and  its 
chief.  A  collection  of  hundreds  made  the  tribe;  and  the  tribe 
was  also  governed  by  an  assembly  and  a  war  chief.  The  polit- 
ical system  of  the  Germans  was  thus  democratic  in  character, 
and  presented  a  striking  contrast  to  the  imperial  system  of 
Borne. 

The  German  Judicial  System. — Among  primitive  barbarians 
it  is  customary  for  injuries  to  be  atoned  for  either  (1)  by 
private  redress,  in  which  each  one  takes  the  law  into  his  own 
hands,  or  (2)  by  blood  revenge,  in  which  a  family  obtains  re- 
dress for  an  injury  done  to  its  members.  But  the  Germans  had 
advanced  beyond  this  primitive  stage,  and  the  person  charged 
with  a  crime  was  allowed  a  trial  before  the  chief  and  the  whole 
assembly,  or  before  a  number  of  persons  selected  to  try  the  case. 
Tin-  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  culprit  was  usually  determined 
in 'one  of  three  ways:  (1)  by  "  compurgation,"  which  required 
ili-it  a  certain  number  of  persons,  called  "  compurgators,"  he 
found  who  would  swear  that  they  believed  the  accused,  when 
he  asserted  his  innocence;  (2)  by  ordeal,  which  required  that 
the  accused  should  undergo  some  dangerous  test,  like  handling 
reel-hot  iron,  from  which,  if  he  escaped  uninjured,  he  was 
judged  to  be  innocent;  or  (3)  by  combat,  or  a  fight  between  the 
contesting  partis,  or  their  champions.  The  penalty  inflicted 
upon  the<riiilty  party  was  usually  a  money  com pensat ion.  called 


(JKIIMAX    OCCUPATION    OK    TI1K    \YKST  485 

weregild,  which  varied  according  to  the  rank  of  the  injured 
[in  son.  The  crimes  which  prevailed  among  the  Germans  were 
chiefly  of  the  character  of  personal  injuries;  since  the  rights 
relating  to  property  and  contracts  were  scarcely  yet  recognized. 
The  simple  laws  of  the  Germans  thus  showed  a  marked  differ- 
ence from  the  highly  developed  jurisprudence  of  the  Romans. 

Conversion  of  the  Germans. — The  early  German  religion 
was  similar  to  the  primitive  worship  of  the  early  Greeks  and 
Romans — a  polytheistic  nature  worship.  They  worshiped  Tu- 
isco,  Wodin  (Odin),  Thor,  and  Freya — names  still  preserved 
in  the  English  names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  Tuesday, 
Wednesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday.  Their  idea  of  immortality 
was  based  upon  what  they  regarded  as  most  enjoyable  in  human 
life.  Their  heaven  was  the  "  Valhalla/'  the  hall  of  the  slain, 
where  valiant  heroes  shared  in  the  banquets  of  the  gods.  But 
it  is  especially  important  for  us  to  notice  that  many  of  the 
German  tribes  were  converted  to  Christianity  before  they  made 
their  final  settlements  in  the  Roman  territory.  When  the  fol- 
lowers of  Arius  were  banished  from  the  Roman  empire  as 
heretics,  after  the  Council  of  Nice  (p.  461),  many  of  them  be- 
came missionaries  to  the  barbarians.  The  most  distinguished 
of  these  missionaries  was  TJTfilas,  "  the  apostle  to  the  Goths." 
By  his  efforts  the  Gothic  nation  was  converted  to  the  Arian 
form  of  Christianity;  and  his  translation  of  the  Bible  into  their 
language  was  the  first  German  version  of  the  Scriptures.  From 
the  Goths  Christianity  spread  among  the  neighboring  tribes, 
the  Burgundians  and  the  Vandals.  The  acceptance  by  the 
Germans  of  a  religion  which  was  fundamentally  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Romans  was  one  of  the  causes  which  finally  led  to 
the  fusion  of  the  Romans  and  the  Germans  into  one  society. 

II.     THE  GREAT  INVASIONS 

Nature  of  the  Invasions. — Tf  we  recall  what  we  have  al- 
ready learned,  we  may  realize  that  the  pressure  of  the  northern 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 28 


486  THE    ROMAN   WORLD 

barbarians  upon  the  south  was  not  a  new  thing  in  the  history  of 
the  ancient  world.  In  fact,  it  represents  a  long  continued  and 
almost  constant  struggle.  We  have  seen,  in  early  times,  the 
Scythians  pressing  down  upon  the  Medes  and  Persians  (p.  62). 
We  have  seen  the  Gauls  invading  Macedonia  and  Greece  (p. 
248),  and  also,  about  the  same  time,  invading  Italy  and  de- 
stroying Rome  (p.  300).  We  have  seen  the  Cimbri  and  Teu- 
tones  threatening  the  Roman  republic  in  the  days  of  Marius 
(p.  365) ;  and  the  Quadi  and  Marcomanni  harassing  the  em- 
pire during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (p.  443).  We  have 
seen  the  frontiers  broken  in  during  the  decline  of  the  early  em- 
pire (p.  452),  and  the  Goths  obtaining  a  foothold  in  the  prov- 
inces during  the  reign  of  Valens  (p.  465).  These  events  show 
that  from  the  earliest  times  the  barbarian  north  had  been  a 
constant  menace  to  the  civilized  south.  The  invasions  were, 
in  their  nature,  a  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  earth — or 
at  least  for  the  lands  most  favorable  for  human  existence.  As 
long  as  the  Roman  empire  preserved  its  original  strength,  it 
was  able  to  maintain  itself  in  this  struggle  for  existence.  But 
when  its  resources  were  exhausted,  its  frontiers  gave  way  to  the 
barbarian  pressure.  These  invasions  were  not  of  the  nature 
of  mere  military  expeditions;  they  were  rather  the  migration 
of  nations  in  the  search  of  new  settlements.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  great  invasions  which  now  took  place  were  those 
of  the  Visigoths  under  Al'aric,  the  Huns  under  At'tila,  and  the 
Vandals  under  Gen'seric. 

Invasion  of  the  Visigoths  under  Alaric. — The  Gothic  na- 
tion was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Visigoths  or  West  Goths, 
and  the  ( )strogoths  or  East  Goths.  The  Visigoths  were  now  set- 
tled in  the  Roman  territory  south  of  the  Danube,  and  were 
subject  to  the  Eastern  emperor.  Under  their  great  leader, 
Alaric,  they  revolted  (395  A.  D.)  against  the  Roman  authority; 
they  invaded  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  threatened  to  dev- 
astate the  whole  peninsula.  The  Eastern  emperor,  Arcadius, 
in  order  to  relieve  his  own  territory,  pacified  the  (Jothie  leader 


GKKMAN    OCCUPATION    OK    T11H    VVKST  487 

by  granting  to  him  Illyricum  and  making  him  master  general 
oi'  the  province.  Not  entirely  satisfied  with  this  territory,  Al- 
aric  soon  invaded  Italy,  and  ravaged  the  plains  of  the  Po.  But 
IK-  was  defeated  at  Pollentia  (403  A.  D.)  by  the  great  Vandal 
soldier,  Stil'icho,  who  was  now  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the 
Western  emperor,  Honorius.  The  generalship  of  Stilicho  was 
also  shown  in  checking  an  invasion  made  by  a  host  of  Vandals, 
Burgundians,  and  Sue'vi,  under  the  lead  of  Radagai'sus  (406 
A.  D.).  Italy  seemed  safe  as  long  as  Stilicho  lived;  but  he  was 
unfortunately  put  to  death  to  satisfy  the  jealousy  of  his  un- 
grateful master,  Honorius  (408  A.  D.). 

With  Stilicho  dead,  Italy  was  practically  defenseless.  Alaric 
at  the  head  of  the  Visigoths  immediately  invaded  the  penin- 
sula, and  marched  to  Home.  He  was  induced  to  spare  the  city 
only  by  the  payment  of  an  enormous  ransom.  "But  the  barba- 
rian chief  was  not  satisfied  with  the  payment  of  money.  He  was 
in  search  of  lands  upon  which  to  settle  his  people.  Honorius 
refused  to  grant  his  demand,  and  after  fruitless  negotiations 
with  the  emperor,  Alaric  determined  to  enforce  it  by  the  sword. 
He  took  the  city  of  Rome  and  sacked  it  (410  A.  D.).  For  three 
days  the  city  was  given  up  to  plunder.  He  then  overran  south- 
ern Italy  and  made  himself  master  of  the  peninsula.  He  soon 
died,  and  his  successor,  Adolphus  (Ataulf),  was  induced  to  find 
in  southern  Gaul  and  Spain  the  lands  which  Alaric  had  sought 
in  Italy. 

Invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila. — The  next  great  inva- 
sion of  the  Western  Empire  was  made  by  the  Huns  under 
Attila.  This  savage  people  from  Asia  had  already  gained  a 
foothold  in  eastern  Europe  north  of  the  Danube.  Under  their 
great  chieftain,  Attila,  who  has  been  called  "  the  Scourge  of 
God,"  they  invaded  Gaul  and  devastated  the  provinces;  they 
laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Orleans,  but  were  finally  defeated  by 
the  Roman  general  Aetius,  with  the  aid  of  the  Visigoths.  The 
battle  was  fought  near  Chalons  (451  A.  D.),  and  has  been  called 
one  of  the  great  decisive  battles  of  the  world,  because  it  re- 


488  .  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

lieved  Europe  from  the  danger  of  Scythian  domination.  Attila 
later  invaded  Italy,  but  retired  without  attacking  Rome. 

Notwithstanding  the  brilliant  service  which  Aetius  had  ren- 
dered, he  was  made  the  victim  of  court  intrigue,  and  was  mur- 
dered by  his  jealous  prince,  Valentinian  III.  The  fate  of 
Aetius,  like  that  of  Stilicho  before  him,  shows  the  wretched 
condition  into  which  the  imperial  government  had  fallen. 

Invasion  of  the  Vandals  under  Genseric. — The  Vandals 
who  had  fought  under  Radagaisus  had,  upon  the  death  of  that 
leader,  retreated  into  Spain,  and  had  finally  crossed  over  into 
Africa,  where  they  had  erected  a  kingdom  under  their  chief 
Genseric  (Gaiseric).  They  captured  the  Roman  city  of  Car- 
thage and  made  it  their  capital ;  and  they  soon  obtained  control 
of  the  western  Mediterranean.  On  the  pretext  of  settling  a 
quarrel  at  Rome,  Genseric  landed  his  army  at  the  port  of  Ostia, 
took  possession  of  the  city  of  Rome,  and  for  fourteen  days 
made  it  the  subject  of  pillage  (455  A.  D.).  By  this  act  of 
Genseric,  the  city  lost  its  treasures  and  many  of  its  works  of 
art,  and  the  word  "  vandalism  "  came  to  be  a  term  of  odious 
meaning. 

Fall  of  the  Empire  in  the  West  (476  A.  D.).— By  these  and 
other  barbarian  conquests,  the  authority  of  the  Western  em- 
peror was  now  limited  to  Italy,  together  with  a  small  part  of 
northwestern  Gaul,  which  still  remained  under  the  Roman 
governor  Sya'grius.  The  emperors  themselves  were  weak  and 
incapable  of  ruling.  The  real  power  was  exercised  by  others. 
The  imperial  administration  at  Rome  was,  for  a  time,  in  the 
hands  of  Placid'ia,  sister  of  Honorius  and  daughter  of  Theodo- 
sius  the  Great.  With  the  death  of  Stilicho  and  Aetius.  the 
command  of  the  Roman  armies  fell  to  Ric'imer,  who  is  known 
as  the  "  kingmaker. "  since  he  set  up  and  deposed  emperors  at 
his  will.  Then  followed  On-stes.  who  was  once  the  secretary  of 
the  barbarian  chief  Attila,  and  who  now  eo-inuamled  the  bar- 
barian auxiliaries  in  Italy.  He  received  the  title  of  Roman 
"patrician"  and  attempted  to  mle  alter  the  manner  of  Kiri- 


CKIJMAN    OCCUPATION    OF    THE    WEST  489 

mer.  He  placed  upon  the  throne  his  son,  Romulus  Augustulus, 
a  boy  six  years  of  age,  whose  reign  has  no  significance,  except 
that  he  was  the  last  of  the  Western  emperors.  His  brief  reign 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  the  barbarian 
mercenaries,  who  demanded  one  third  of  the  lands  of  Italy. 
The  young  prince,  Augustulus,  was  deposed  by  Odoa'cer,  chief 
of  the  Her'uli  (476  A.  D.).  Word  was  sent  to  the  Eastern  ruler 
that  there  was  no  longer  any  need  of  a  separate  emperor  in 
l he  West.  Odoacer  accordingly  received  the  title  of  patrician 
and  ruled  over  Italy  as  the  vicar  of  the  Eastern  emperor.  The 
West  was  thus  deprived  of  the  imperial  title;  and  this  event  is 
sometimes  called  the  "  fall  of  the  Western  Roman  empire." 

III.     THE  NEW  GERMANIC  KINGDOMS 

In  Italy,  the  Heruli  and  Ostrogoths. — The  West  was  now 
theoretically  united  to  the  East;  but  as  the  result  of  the  inva- 
sions it  became,  in  fact,  the  seat  of  new  Germanic  kingdoms, 
which  were  practically  independent  of  the  Eastern  emperor. 

In  order  to  realize  the  great  changes  which  were  now  taking 
place  in  western  Europe,  let  us  locate  on  the  map  (p.  490)  the 
new  kingdoms  established  by  the  German  invaders.  Odoacer, 
the  king  of  the  Heruli,  continued  to  rule  over  Italy  for  seventeen 
years  (476-493  A.  D.).  Although  a  barbarian  he  respected  the 
forms  of  the  Rdman  government.  Although  an  Arian  he  did 
not  disturb  the  orthodox  church.  The  brief  dominion  of  the 
Heruli  was  cut  short  by  the  conquest  of  Italy  by  the  Ostrogoths 
under  Theod'oric. 

The  Ostrogoths,  following  their  old  kinsmen  the  Visigoths, 
had  settled  south  of  the  Danube,  and  had  become  allies  of  the 
Eastern  emperor.  Their  chief  was  Theodoric,  who  had  been 
brought  up  as  a  hostage  at  Constantinople,  and  had  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  customs  and  institutions  of  the  Romans.  To 
satisfy  the  demands  of  his  people  for  better  lands,  Theodoric 
obtained  from  the  emperor  the  authority  to  take  possession  of 


No. 


490 


GERMAN    OCCUPATION    OF    THE    WEST 


491 


Italy.  After  a  brief  war  lie  became  master  of  the  peninsula, 
and  founded  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths  (493-552 
A.  D.).  lie  acknowledged  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the  emperor 
at  Constantinople;  but,  in  fact,  he  ruled  as  an  independent  sov- 
ereign. He  proved  to  be  a  great  statesman  and  civilizer,  and 
may  well  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  the  barbarian  kings.  He 
restored  Italy  to  a  prosperous  condition,  such  as  it  had  not  seen 


TOMB  OF  THEODOBIC  AT  RAVENNA 

since  the  days  of  the  Antonines.  He  drained  the  marshes,  re- 
paired the  highways,  restored  the  old  monuments,  and  built 
splendid  edifices.  His  ambition  was  to  infuse  a  new  Teutonic 
vigor  into  the  old  civilization  of  Eome — to  preserve  the  old  in- 
stitutions, while  he  gave  to  them  a  new  spirit.  He  compiled  the 
Roman  law  (the  Edictum  Theodorici)  for  the  benefit  of  his 
Roman  subjects;  and,  although  an  Arian,  he  respected  the 
rights  of  the  orthodox  church.  He  also  patronized  learning. 
The  chief  ornaments  of  his  reign  were  Boe'thius,  who  wrote  the 


492  THE   ROMAN  WORLD 

"  Consolations  of  Philosophy  " ;  and  his  private  secretary,  Cas- 
siodo'rus,  who  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Goths  "  (now  preserved 
only  in  an  abridged  form).  The  last  years  of  Theodoric  were 
disturbed  by  intrigues  and  by  acts  unworthy  of  a  great  prince. 
At  his  death  (527  A.  D.),  his  enemies  succeeded  in  having  his 
ashes  scattered ;  but  his  tomb  at  Ravenna  remains  as  a  monu- 
ment of  his  greatness. 

In  Spain,  the  Suevi  and  Visigoths. — The  peninsula  of 
Spain  became  the  seat  of  two  Germanic  kingdoms — that  of  the 
Suevi  and  that  of  the  Visigoths.  The  Suevi  had  taken  part 
in  the  great  invasion  under  Radagaisus  (p.  487).  After  the  de- 
feat of  that  barbarian  leader  by  Stilicho,  they  had  found  a 
refuge  in  Spain,  where  they  founded  a  kingdom  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  peninsula  (409-585  A.  D.).  They  had  little 
influence  upon  the  history  of  Spain,  as  they  were  absorbed  into 
the  greater  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths. 

The  Visigoths  were  led  into  Spain  from  Italy  by  Adolphus, 
the  successor  of  Alaric  (p.  487).  Their  kingdom  lasted  for 
many  years  (419-711  A.  D.),  and  at  one  time  extended  over  the 
entire  Spanish  peninsula  and  into  southern  Gaul  as  far  as  the 
river  Loire.  .Like  many  other  barbarian  chiefs,  the  Visigothic 
kings -had  great  respect  for  the  Roman  institutions  which  they 
found  among  the  conquered  people.  How  much  their  first; 
king,  Adolphus,  was  under  the  influence  of  Rome  we  may  judge 
from  his  own  statement,  in  which  he  says  that  while  he  wished 
at  first  to  destroy  the  Roman  name,  he  was  convinced  that  1o 
maintain  the  Gothic  state  it  was  necessary  to  preserve  the  Ro- 
man institutions.  The  Visigothic  kings  respected  the  rights  of 
their  Roman  subjects.  While  one  king  (Euric)  drew  up  the 
barbarian  laws  for  the  Gothic  people,  another  king  (Alaric 
II.)  drv\v  up  the  Roman  laws  for  the  Roman  people.  The 
tendency  in  Spain  was  to  preserve  the  equality  of  the  Romans 
mid  tin-  Goths  under  the  common  authority  of  the  king, 
who  ruled  more  like  a  Roman  emperor  than  like  a  barbarian 
chieftain. 


GERMAN    OCCUPATION    OF    THE    WEST  493 

In  Gaul,  the  Burgundians  and  Franks. — In  passing  to  the 
province  of  Gaul,  we  find  the  southeastern  part,  along  the  val- 
ley of  the  Rhone,  occupied  by  the  kingdom  of  the  Burgundians 
(410-534  A.  D.).  Here,  as  in  Italy  and  Spain,  there  was  a  dis- 
position on  the  part  of  the  kings  to  place  the  Roman  and  the 
German  people  on  a  plane  of  equality.  For  example,  one  Bur- 
gundian  king  (Gundibald)  codified  the  barbarian  laws  of  his 
own  people;  and  another  king  (Sigismund)  drew  up  a  collection 
of  the  Roman  law  for  his  Roman  subjects.  The  Burgundians 
were  regarded  as  a  brave  people;  and  their  heroic  exploits  are 
sung  in  the  Niebelung en-lied,  the  great  epic  poem  of  the  Ger- 
man race.  Their  kingdom  was  continued  until  it  was  absorbed 
by  that  of  the  Franks. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  new  German  kingdoms  was 
the  Frankish  monarchy,  the  first  dynasty  of  which  was  called 
the  Merovingian  (486-752  A.  D.).  The  founder  of  this  dynasty 
was  I'lovis  (Clodwig,  Clodovech),  the  chief  of  the  Salian 
Franks — or  that  part  of  the  Frankish  nation  that  moved  across 
the  Rhine.  This  great  chieftain,  after  defeating  Syagrius  (see 
p.  488)  at  the  battle  of  Soissons  (486  A.  D.  ;  map,  p.  516),  soon 
overcame  the  neighboring  tribes  in  Gaul, — the  Alemanni  in 
the  northeast,  the  Burgundians  in  the  southeast,  and  the  Visi- 
goths in  the  southwest, — and  thus  brought  the  whole  of  Gaul 
under  his  authority.  He  recognized  a  sort  of  allegiance  to  the 
Eastern  emperor  by  accepting  the  title  of  "  consul."  During 
his  reign  and  that  of  his  successors  the  Roman  people  were  re- 
spected, their  cities  were  preserved,  their  language  and  laws 
remained  untouched;  and  many  of  the  Romans  were  even  se- 
lected to  assist  the  Frankish  king  in  his  government. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  facts  in  the  reign  of  Clovis  was 
his  conversion  to  the  orthodox  form  of  Christianity, — which 
followed  his  victory  over  the  Alemanni.  The  king  became  the 
protector  of  the  church,  and  the  church  became  a  support 
of  the  king.  The  death  of  Clovis  was  followed  by  many  divi- 
sions and  reunions  of  the  kingdom;  but  the  policy  which  he 


494 


THE    UOMAX    WOULD 


adopted  led  to  the  blending  of  Roman  ideas  of  law  with  the 
German  ideas  of  liberty,  and  to  an  alliance  between  the  church 
and  the  state  which  afterward  made  the  Frankish  monarchy 
tin-  strongest  political  power  in  western  Europe,  as  we  shall 
hereafter  see. 

In  Britain,  the  Anglo-Saxons. — The  German  conquest  of 
Britain  resulted  from  a  series  of  migrations,  beginning  at  the 
middle  of  the  fifth_centurv  ^449  A.  D.)  and  extending  over  a 

period  of  a  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  The  people 
whom  we  generally  call 
the . "  Anglo-Saxons  "  in- 
cluded the  Jutes,  who 
settled  in  Kent;  the  Sax- 
ons, who  settled  in  Sus- 
sex, Wessex,  and  Essex; 
and  the  Angles,  who  set- 
tled in  East  Anglia,  Mer- 
cia,  and  Northumber- 
land.- These  settlements, 
which  grew  into*  as  many 
kingdoms,  are  often  spo- 
ken of  as  the  "  Anglo- 
Saxon  Heptarchy."  Al- 
though the  province  of 
Britain  had  previously 
been  made  a  seat  of  Roman  civilization,  many  of  the  remains 
of  which  exist  at  the  present  day,  the  Teutonic  institutions  be- 
came thoroughly  transplanted  to  English  soil;  and  the  German 
ideas  of  personal  liberty  and  of  local  self-government  became 
more  firmly  fixed  there  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 
But  still  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  Roman  in- 
fluence \\.i-  mtiivly  destroyed.  The  Roman  eilies  slill  re- 
Muiined  Mini  preserved  some  of  the  municipal  institutions  of 
the  empire.  \Vln-n  ihe  Roman  missionary.  Augustine,  was  sent 


Ax<!i.o-s..\xox  HEPTABCUY 


CJEKMAX    OCCUI'ATIOX    OK    THK    \\KST 

to  Britain,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, the  church  became  organized  on  a  Eoman  basis,  and 
attained  a  sort  of  national  unity,  even  before  the  Saxon  king- 
doms themselves  were  united.  The  Christian  clergy,  who  \\civ 
imbued  with  Roman  ideas,  became  the  advisers  of  the  Saxon 
kings,  and  gave  them  lessons  in  the  art  of  government  and  po- 
litical administration. 

When  we  speak  of  the  conversion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  by 
Augustine,  we  must  not  forget  that  Christianity  had  already 
heen  established  in  Britain  during  the  Roman  period.  When 
tlu1  island  was  invaded  by  the  pagan  Germans,  the  Celtic  Chris- 
tians took  refuge  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  early  British, 
or  Celtic,  church  was  thus  preserved  in  these  places,  and  had 
a  strong  seat  in  the  island  of  lo'na.  The  rivalry  between  the 
Christian  Celts  and  the  missionaries  from  Eome  was  finally 
settled  by  an  agreement  to  unite  under  an  archbishop  appointed 
by  the  Pope.  The  man  selected  was  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  who 
organized  the  Anglo-Saxon  church  upon  a  Roman  model. 

IV.     THE  ROMANO-GERMANIC  SOCIETY 

Fusion  of  the  Romans  and  Germans. — The  society  which 
grew  up  in  the  new  barbarian  kingdoms  was  partly  Roman  and 
partly  German.  The  two.  peoples  lived  side  by  side  in  the  same 
territory — the  one  in  the  old  municipalities,  and  the  other,  gen- 
erally speaking,  in  the  rural  districts — in  villages  or  upon  great 
estates.  Being  thus  brought  together  under  the  samo  authority, 
they  were  necessarily  influenced  by  each  other.  Their  institu- 
tions, although  diverse  in  origin  and  different  in  character, 
were  modified  by  their  mutual  contact,  resulting  in  a  political 
system  which  possessed  both  Roman  and  German  elements. 
One  of  the  chief  results  of  the  invasions,  therefore,  was  the 
fusion  of  the  two  peoples,  the  mingling  to  a  great  extent  of 
their  political  and  social  institutions,  their  languages,  and  to  a 
certain  degree  their  systems  of  law. 


496  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

The  German  Kingship. — The  chiefs  of  the  new  kingdoms 
became  kings  with  something  of  an  imperial  dignity  and  au- 
thority. They  assumed  the  imperial  insignia — the  crown,  the 
imperial  scepter,  and  the  purple  robe.  They  surrounded  them- 
selves with  household  officers,  like  an  imperial  court.  They 
governed  their  territory  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  an  impe- 
rial province.  Thus  the  royal  power,  by  appropriating  the  old 
imperial  idea  of  Rome,  gradually  became  more  absolute  than 
among  the  primitive  German  people. 

The  New  German  Nobility. — A  new  nobility  also  sprang 
up,  which  included  both  a  German  and  a  Roman  element.  It 
depended  primarily  upon  the  German  principle  of  the  comita- 
tus  (p.  483),  or  the  personal  relation  between  the  chief  and  his 
followers.  Those  who  were  closely  related  to  the  king  were  his 
companions,  and  shared  something  of  his  dignity.  Besides  this 
personal  nobility,  there  was  what  might  be  called  an  official 
nobility,  made  up  of  the  military  chiefs,  or  dukes  (duces),  and 
the  territorial  governors,  or  counts  (comites).  Persons  were 
admitted  to  this. privileged  class,  whether  they  were  Germans  or 
Romans;  and  this  fact  tended  to  break  down  the  distinction  be- 
'tween  the  two  peoples. 

The  Common  Freemen. — The  growth  of  the  new  kingship 
and  the  new  nobility  tended  to  degrade  the  condition  of  the 
common  freemen.  The  pure  democratic  institutions  of  the 
primitive  Germans  became  somewhat  modified.  In  the  old 
German  society,  before  the  invasions,  all  the  freemen  had  been 
accustomed  to  meet  together  in  their  assemblies,  and  had  had  a 
real  share  in  the  government.  It  is  true  that  after  the  inva- 
sions the  kings  sometimes  called  the  people  together;  but  the 
national  assemblies  were  more  often  made  up  of  the  nobles  than 
of  the  common  freemen.  Moreover,  the  freemen  who  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  nobility,  were  obliged  to  live  upon  tho  soil :  ;m<l 
many  of  them  gradually  descended  to  the  condition  of  the  old 
Roman  roloni,  or  serfs. 

The  Christian  Church. — During  the  period  of  the  invasions 


GERMAN   OCCUPATION   OF   THE    WEST  497 

the  church  was  growing  in  authority  and  influence.  By  its 
efficient  oruani/ntion,  it  was  able  to  maintain  its  power,  while 
the  rest  of  society  was  breaking  up  and  becoming  reorganized. 
The  clergy  formed  the  most  intelligent  and  influential  class 
in  the  community.  They  not  only  exercised  a  great  influence 
over  the  people,  but  became  the  advisers  of  the  kings,  and,  to 
a  large  extent,  shaped  their  laws  and  administration.  More- 
over, the  church,  by  bringing  within  its  communion  and  under 
its  authority  both  the  German  and  the  Roman  population,  be- 
came a  powerful  agency  in  fusing  the  two  peoples  together  and 
breaking  down  their  race  prejudices.  Finally,  the  division  of 
the  church  between  the  Arians  and  the  orthodox  gradually 
passed  away  by  the  triumph  of  the  orthodox  faith.  On  this 
account  the  church  came  to  be  united,  and  formed  the  greatest 
single  power  in  western  Europe. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  THE    GERMANS    AND    THEIR    INSTITUTIONS. — The    Barbarian 
World. — German  Characteristics. — The  German  Political  System. 
— The  German  Judicial  System. — Conversion  of  the  Germans. 

II.  THE  GREAT  INVASIONS. — Nature  of  the  Invasions. — Invasion 
of    the    Visigoths    under   Alaric. — Invasion    of    the    Huns    under 
Attila. — Invasion    of   the   Vandals   under   Genseric. — Fall   of   the 
Empire   in   the   West. 

III.  THE  XEW  GERMANIC  KINGDOMS. — In  Italy,  the  Heruli  and 
Ostrogoths. — In    Spain,   the    Suevi   and    Visigoths. — In    Gaul,   the 
Burgundians  and   Franks. — In   Britain,   the  Anglo-Saxons. 

IV.  THE  ROMANO-GERMANIC  SOCIETY. — Fusion   of  the   Romans 
and  Germans. — The  German  Kingship. — The  New  German  Nobil- 
ity.— The  Common  Freemen. — The  Christian  Church. 

REFERENCES    FOR   READING 

Emerton,  Ch.  2,  "The  Two  Races";  Ch.  3,  "Breaking  of  the 
Frontiers";  Ch.  8,  "Germanic  Ideas  of  Law"  (the  Salic  law) 
(24).1 

Curteis,  Ch.  6,  "Alaric  and  the  Visigoths";  Ch.  7,  "Genseric  and 
the  Vandals";  Ch.  8,  "Attila  and  the  Huns";  Ch.  9,  "The 
•Change  of  Government"  (24). 

Thatcher  and  Schwill.  Ch.  4,  "The  Migration  of  Nations"  (24). 

irThe   figure   in    parenthesis   refers   to   the   number  of   the   topic  in   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


498  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Adams,  Ch.  3,  "Additions of  Christianity";  Ch.  4,  "The  German 
Conquest  and  Fall  of  Rome"  (24). 

Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  2,  "Conversion 
of  the  Teutonic  Races"  (Saint  Columban;  Saint  Boniface) ;  Ch. 
3,  "Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth"  (21). 

Hunt,  History  of  the  English  Church  (21). 

Robinson,  Ch.  3,  "The  German  Invasions  and  Break-up  of  the 
Roman  Empire"  (24). 

Oman,  Dark  Ages,  Ch.  2,  "Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths"; 
Ch.  8,  "The  Visigoths  in  Spain"  (24). 

Bemont  and  Monod,  Ch.  7,  "Institutions  in  Gaul  after  the  In- 
vasions" (24). 

Translations  and  Reprints,  Vol.  VI.,  No.  3,  "The  Early  Ger- 
mans" (25). 

Robinson,  Readings,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  52-55  (conversion  of  Clovis  as  told 
by  Gregory  of  Tours)  (25). 


CHAPTER    XXXIII 

THE   ROMAN  EMPIRE   IN   THE   EAST 

I.     RECOVERY  OF  THE  EMPIRE  BY  JUSTINIAN 

The  Eastern  Empire  before  Justinian. — While  the  Roman 
and  the  Teuton  were  uniting  to  build  up  a  new  society  in  the 
West,  the  old  Roman  Empire  still  continued  in  the  East.  The 
emperor  at  Constantinople  still  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  ruler 
of  the  whole  Roman  world,  and  had  succeeded  in  gaining  the 
nominal  allegiance  of  most  of  the  German  kings;  but  his  real 
authority  was  confined  to  the  provinces  east  of  the  Adriatic.  It 
is  true  that  the  East  was  relieved  of  such  invasions  as  had  de- 
stroyed the  Western  provinces.  Still  the  government  at  Con- 
stantinople was  very  weak,  often  in  the  hands  of  incapable 
men  and  under  the  influence  of  intriguing  women.  The  capi- 
tal and  the  other  cities  of  the  empire  were  distracted  by 
political  dissensions  and  religious  discord.  Not  till  we  cmne 
to  the  reign  of  Justinian  do  we  see  anything  like  a  revival  of 
the  old  Roman  spirit. 


THE     !{OMAN     KMIMIII-:    IN    TIIK     KAST 


490 


The  Reign  of  Justinian  (.V,i;-:>(;:>  A.  D.  ).-  Jusi inian  was 
the  most  famous  ruler  of  the  K;i-tern  Umpire;  and  his  t|<v<ls 
;ire  recorded  by  Proco'pius,  the  most  eminent  historian  of  that 
period.  A  barhnrian  by  birth,  Justinian  came  to  Constantino- 
ple while  vet  a  Yoiinu:  man,  and  there  received  an  excellent  edu- 


*i 


CHURCH  OF  ST.  SOPHIA  AT  CONSTANTINOPLE 

cation.  He  married  the  famous  dancer  Theodo'ra,  who  after- 
ward became  an  orthodox  Christian,  and  who  at  times  aided 
the  emperor  by  her  keen  intellect  and  her  vigorous  spirit.  In 
spite  of  many  stories  which  detract  from  the  personal  character 
of  Justinian,  his  reign  was,  after  that  of  Constantine,  the  most 
brilliant  in  the  history  of  the  East.  He  constructed  many  pub- 
lie  buildings,  chief  among  which  was  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia, 
dedicated  to  Wisdom.  During  his  reign  the  culture  of  the  silk- 
worm was  introduced  into  Europe,  the  eggs  being  stealthily 
brought  from  China,  it  is  said,  by  being  concealed  in  a  hollow 
staff.  But  the  greatest  renown  of  Justinian  rests  upon  his 
partial  recovery  of  the  western  provinces,  and  his  codification 
of  the  Roman  law. 

Recovery  of  Africa  from  the  Vandals  (534  A.  D.). — The 
great  desire  of  Justinian  was  to  restore  the  grandeur  of  the 


JMAJP  No. 


DD 


500 


Till-:     KOMA.N     UMPIRE    IN    THE     KAST  501 

old  Roman  empire.  To  accomplish  this,  it  was  necessary  not 
only  to  maintain  the  frontiers  against  the  hostile  Persians  in 
the  East,  but  also  to  recover  the  provinces  in  the  West  from  the 
hands  of  the  barbarian  kings.  The.jnQst  hated  and  aggres- 
sive of  the  barbarians  were  the  Vandals  in  Africa.  They  had 
swept  the  Mediterranean  with  their  fleets,  and  had  even  threat- 
ened Constantinople.  Unlike  other  tribes  that  had  accepted 
Arian  Christianity,  the  Vandals  were  intolerant  in  religion, 
and  persecuted  the  members  of  the  orthodox  church.  To  rescue 
this  province  Justinian  placed  his  greatest  general,  Belisa'rius, 
in  command  of  a  naval  expedition  to  Africa.  After  a  cam- 
paign of  three  months,  the  Vandals  were  conquered.  Africa 
was  restored  to  the  empire,  and  placed  under  an  "  exarch,"  or 
governor,  appointed  by  the  emperor. 

Recovery  of  Italy  from  the  Ostrogoths  (535-552  A.  D.). — 
Justinian  soon  found  a  pretext  for  invading  Italy.  But  the 
conquest  of  the  Ostrogoths  proved  a  more  serious  undertaking 
than  that  of  the  Vandals.  Belisarius  was  dispatched  with  an 
expedition  to  Sicily  (535  A.  D.).  After  the  conquest  of  that 
island,  Naples  and,  Rome  were  taken.  But  Belisarius  was  him- 
self shut  up  in  the  Roman  capital  and  besieged  for  a  year  by 
the  Gothic  armies.  When  the  siege  was  finally  raised,  he  pur- 
sued the  Goths  to  Ravenna,  and  compelled  the  surrender  of 
that  city.  In  the  midst  of  his  victories,  he  was  recalled  to  Con- 
stantinople and  sent  against  the  Persians.  In  the  meantime 
the  Ostrogoths  recovered  Rome  and  a  large  part  of  the  Italian 
peninsula.  Belisarius  was  a  second  time  sent  into  Italy.  He 
succeeded  in  recapturing  Rome;  but  he  was  feebly  supported 
by  the  emperor  and  again  recalled  to  Constantinople.  The 
final  conquest  of  Italy  was  left  to  another  general,  Narses. 
With  the  fall  of  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  Narses  was  ap- 
pointed exarch,  with  his  capital  at  Ravenna.  By  these  con- 
quests in  Africa  and  Italy — to  which  the  southern  part  of 
Spain  was  added — the  authority  of  the  empire  was  reestab- 
lished over  a  large  part  of  the  western  provinces. 


502  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

The  Codification  of  the  Roman  Law. — To  the  transient 
fame  which  resulted  from  the  wars  of  Justinian  was  added  the 
more  permanent  glory  which  came  from  his  compilation  of 
the  Roman  law.  The  emperor  appointed  the  famous  lawyer 
Tribo'nian,  with  the  aid  of  a  commission  of  jurists,  to  collect 
the  laws  of  the  empire.  These  consisted  of  the  imperial  "  con- 
stitutions " — that  is,  the  laws  issued  by  the  emperors — and  the 
writings  of  the  jurists.  The  newly  codified  body  of  the  civil 
law  was  called  the  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,  and  consisted  of  four 
parts.  (1)  The  Code  was  a  collection  of  the  imperial  constitu- 
tions, issued  since  the  time  of  Theodosius — who  had  already 
made  a  collection  of  the  previous  constitutions.  (2)  The'ZK- 
gesty  or  Pandects,  comprised  extracts  from  the  writings  of 
thirty-nine  of  the  greatest  Roman  jurists — including  Gaius, 
Ulpian,  Paullus,  Modestinus,  and  Papinian.  It  was  the  boast 
of  the  commission  that  three  million  lines  had  been  reduced  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  (3)  The  Institutes  was  a  text- 
book, containing  the  general  principles  of  the  law  and  intended 
for  the  use  of  students.  (4)  The  Novels  contained  the  later 
laws  of  Justinian  issued  after  the  publication  of  the  Code. 
This  compilation  was  perhaps  the  greatest  .legacy  of  Rome  to 
the  modern  world.  "  It  was  in  this  form,"  as  Savigny  says, 
"that  the  Roman  law  became  the  common  law  of  Europe." 

II.    BARBARIAN  ENCROACHMENTS  UPON  THE  EMPIRE 

Conquest  of  Italy  by  the  Lombards  (568  A.  D.). — (The  em- 
pire, which  had  recovered  so  much  of  its  former  greatness  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Justinian,  was  after  his  death  again  exposed 
to  barbarian  incursions  A  The  first  great  disaster  was  the  loss  of 
Italy,  which  had  just  been  recovered  by  Belisarius  and  Narses. 
It  is  said  that  Narses — now  the  exarch  at  Ravenna — was  ill- 
treated  by  the  authorities  at  Constantinople;  and  that  he,  in 
revenge,  invited  the  Lombards  to  conic  lo  11,-ily.  The  Lomlunls 
had  already  settled  in  Pannonia.  Under  their  leader,  Al'boin, 


THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE    IN    THE    EAST 


503 


they  descended  into  the  valley  of  the  Po,  and  afterward  overran, 
nearly  the  whole  of  Italy.  The  principal  seat  of  their  power 
was  in  the  north,  their  capital  being  at  Pavia.  In  the  south 
they  established  a  number  of  duchies — like  that  of  Spole'tum 
and  that  of  Beneventum.  The  Eastern  Empire  was  able,  how- 
ever, to  hold  the  territory  about  Ravenna  and  about  Rome; 
and  this  territory  remained  under  the  authority  of  the  exarch 


ITALY 

Under  the  Lombards 
7th  Century 

|         [Lombards 

I         \Eaatern  Empire 


DUCHY    OF 

Beneventui 
BENEVENTUM* 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


'50 


100 


150 


of  Ravenna  and  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  The  Lombards  were 
oppressive  and  cruel.  Unlike  the  Ostrogoths,  they  had  little 
respect  for  the  Roman  people  or  for  Roman  institutions.  They 
had  adopted  the  Arian  form  of  Christianity ;  but  they  were  in- 
tolerant and  were  open  enemies  of  the  orthodox  church.  The 
Lombard  rule  marks  the  lowest  point  that  Italy  reached  during 
the  barbarian  invasions. 


501  •  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Slavic  Settlements  in  the  Eastern  Provinces, — The  invasion 
of  the  Lombards  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  period  of  en- 
croachments upon  the  Eastern  Empire.  We  saw  some  time 
ago  that  the  early  Germans  had  been  pushed  forward  upon  the 
frontiers  by  the  pressure  of  the  Huns  from  Asia  (p.  465).  So 
now  the  Slavic  peoples  were  being  pressed  forward  by  other 
Asiatic  tribes,  the  Avars  and  Bulgarians.  The  Slavs  were  thus 
brought  into  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  the  East  as  the 
Germans  had  been  to  the  West.  They  did  not,  however,  suc- 
ceed in  overthrowing  the  empire  in  the  East,  -as  the  Germans 
had  practically  done  in  the  West.  But  still  there  came  to  be 
established  at  least  four  new  barbarian  states  south  of  the  Dan- 
ube. These  were  Servia,  Croatia,  Carinthia,  and  Bulgaria. 
The  first  three  of  these  were  founded  by  the  Slavs;  the  last  was 
founded  by  the  Bulgarians,  originally  a  "  Turanian  "  people, 
who,  however,  having  mixed  with  the  Slavs,  adopted  the  lan- 
guage and  customs  of  the  latter,  and  became  themselves  prac- 
tically a  Slavic  people. 

Heraclius  and  the  Declining  Empire. — The  loss  of  these 
territories  in  Italy  and  on  the  Danube  was  a  painful  evidence 
of  the  weakness  of  the  government  at  Constantinople.  The 
Persians  also  renewed  their  wars  and  overran  the  provinces  in 
the  East.  They  took  possession  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  invaded 
Asia  Minor,  and  their  armies  encamped  within  sight  of  Con- 
stantinople. From  this  dangerous  condition  the  empire  was 
temporarily  rescued  by  the  heroic  efforts  of  Heracli'us  (610-641 
A.  D.),  an  emperor  whose  warlike  deeds  remind  us  of  Justinian. 
He  boldly  attacked  the  enemy,  rescued  Asia  Minor  and  Kirypt 
and  carried  the  war  into  the  Persian  territory.  But  the  vigor- 
ous reign  of  Heraclius  was  hardly  more  than  a  parenthesis  in 
the  general  movement  toward  decay  and  degeneracy.  The 
Eastern  Empire  continued  to  exist  for  more  th;in  eight  hun- 
ilivtl  vears  ami  to  render  some  service  in  civili/ation.  Tt  pro- 
•  I  Knrope  from  the  Micn>ac!imeiii>  <>!'  Asiatic  peoples,  and 
preserved  tli«-  fruit.-  »•!'  ancient  learning  to  modern  times. 


THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE   IN   THE    EAST  505 

III.    THE  MOHAMMEDAN  ATTACK 

Mohammed  and  his  Religion. — While  the  empire  was  strug- 
gling to  defend  itself  against  IVrsia,  there  appeared  in  Asia  a 
new  power  which  was  to  prove  a  more  formidable  enemy  than 
Persia,  and  a  new  religion  which  was  destined  to  be  a  rival 
of  Christianity  itself.  This  new  religious  power  sprang  up  in 
A  rabia,  of  which  little  had  been  previously  known.  Its  founder 
and  leader  was  Moliammed.  It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  re- 
count the  many  stories  which  are  told  regarding  his  life — his 
early  vocation  as  a  merchant,  his  miraculous  visions,  his  call 
to  preach,  his  flight  from  his  native  city  Mecca  (from  which 
date,  G22  A.  D.,  begins  the  Mohammedan  era),  his  failure  as  a 
simple  prophet,  and  his  use  of  the  sword  as  a  tool  of  religious 
conquest.  It  is  enough  for  us  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  he 
welded  together  a  disunited  people,  proclaimed  a  new  religion 
to  bis  1'el low-men,  and  founded  a  new  empire  in  the  East. 

The  religion  of  Mohammed,  it  has  been  said,  was  com- 
pounded of  an  eternal  truth  and  a  novel  fiction.  It  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  words,  "  There  is  only  one  God,  and  Mo- 
hammed is  his  prophet."  It  was  a  protest  against  the  poly- 
theistic and  idolatrous  tendencies  of  the  East.  It  was  also  the 
assertion  of  the  prophetic  character  of  a  man  who  extended  re- 
ligion by  means  of  the  sword,  and  sought  to  exalt  himself  by 
imposing  upon  the  world  the  choice  between  the  Koran,1 
tribute,  or  death. 

Mohammedan  Conquests  in  the  East  and  West. — The  con- 
quests begun  by  Mohammed  were  carried  on  by  his  successors, 
the  "  caliphs,"  as  they  were  called.  Of  these  the  greatest  war- 
rior, and  the  real  founder  of  the  Arabian  supremacy  in  the  East, 
was  Omar.  This  caliph  united  all  the  people  of  Arabia  under 
his  banner,  and  entered  upon  a  remarkable  career  of  conquest. 
He  defeated  Heraclius,  as  that  emperor  was  returning  from  a 

1  The  Koran  is  the  Bible  of  the  Mohammedans ;  they  believe  it  to 
have  been  divinely  revealed  to  the  prophet,  and  accept  it  as  the  final 
authority  in  civil  as  well  as  religious  law. 


506 


THE    ROMAN    WORLD 


MOSQUE  OF  OMAR,  JERUSALEM 


victorious  campaign  against  Persia;  he  wrested  Syria  and  Pal- 
estine from  the  empire,  and  erected  an  Arabian  mosque  at 
Jerusalem  on  the  site  of  Solomon's  Temple.  He  then  defeated 
the  Persians  and  overthrew  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanida3.  He 

invaded  Egypt,  and. 
after  besieging  Alex- 
andria for  fourteen 
months,  became  mas- 
ter of  that  country. 
With  this  beginning 
under  Omar,  the  Ara- 
bians continued  t  o 
push  their  conquests, 
under  other  caliphs,  in 
northern  Africa  to  the 
Atlantic.  They  then 

crossed  into  Spain  and  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  Visi- 
goths (711  A.  D.),  leaving  only  a  small  Christian  kingdom 
(Astu'ria)  in  the  extreme  north.  They  invaded  Gaul  and 
threatened  to  overrun  all  the  countries  of  western  Europe,  and 
even  to  destroy  Christianity  itself.  From  this  disastrous  fate 
Christian  Europe  was  rescued  by  the  Franks  under  Charles 
M artel'  at  the  famous  battle  near  Tours,  which  may  well  bo 
called  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world.  In  a  single  cen- 
tury, from  the  death  of  Mohammed  (632  A.  D.)  to  the  battle  of 
Tours  (732  A.  D.),  the  Arabians, or  Saracens,  had  established  an 
empire  extending  from  the  Indus  River  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Dismemberment  of  the  Caliphate. — By  the  middle  of  ill-- 
eighth century  the  Mohammedan  power  had  reached  its  great- 
est extent  under  the  dynasty  called  the  Ommi'ads,  who  made 
their  capital  at  Damascus.  From  this  time  the  caliphate  grad- 
ually fell  to  pieces.  The  Ommiads  were  overthrown  by  a  new 
dynasty,  called  the  Ahbas'sids,  who  removed  their  capital  far- 
ther oast,  to  tin-  >hores  of  the  Tigris  at  Bagdad.  One  of  the 
Ommiads,  named  Abd-er-Hah'man,  escaped  and  fled  to  Spain, 


Till:    HOMAN    EMPIRE   IN    THE    EAST  507 

where  he  established  an  independent  caliphate,  with  its  capital 
at  (Jor'dova.  11  was  not  lonu  lie  tore  another  independent 
caliphate  arose  in  Africa,  with  its  capital  at  Cairo,  under  the 
rule  of  the  Fat'iraites,  who  traced  their  descent  from  Fa'tima, 
the  daughter  of  Mohammed.  In  spite  of  these  and  subsequent 
divisions,  the  Mohammedan  religion  continued  to  prevail  over 
these  countries. 

Mohammedan  Civilization. — By  their  conquests  the  Mo- 
hammedans came  into  contact  with  the  higher  civilizations  of 
Persia  and  the  Eastern  Empire.  While  western  Europe  was 
under  the  shadow  of  the  German  invasions,  and  the  Eastern 
Empire  was  going  into  decline,  Bagdad  and  Cordova,  and  other 
Mohammedan  cities,  became  the  centers  of  learning  and  cul- 
ture. The  Arabians  studied  philosophy,  cultivated  mathe- 
matics, and  excelled  in  medicine.  They  obtained  their  chief 
ideas  of  architecture  from  the  cities  of  the  Eastern  Empire; 
but  they  developed  a  new  and  beautiful  style  of  ornamentation, 
called  "  arabesque,"  which  is  made  up  of  lines  and  curves,  and 
dispenses  with  the  forms  of  living  beings.  The  Arabians  were 
not  very  original;  but  they  took  up  much  of  the  culture  of  the 
East  and  afterward  transmitted  it  to  the  peoples  of  western 
Europe. 

SYNOPSIS    FOB   REVIEW 

I.  RECOVERY  OF  THE  EMPIRE  BY  JUSTINIAN. — The  Eastern  Em- 
pire  before    Justinian. — The    Reign    of   Justinian. — Recovery    of 
Africa  from   the   Vandals. — Recovery   of   Italy   from   the   Ostro- 
goths.— Codification  of  the  Roman  Law. 

II.  BARBARIAN   ENCROACHMENTS  UPON  THE  EMPIRE. — Conquest 
of  Italy  by   the   Lombards. — Slavic   Settlements   in   the   Eastern 
Provinces. — Heraclius  and  the  Declining  Empire. 

III.  THE     MOHAMMEDAN    ATTACK. — Mohammed     and     his     Re- 
ligion.— Mohammedan    Conquests    in    the    East   and    West. — Dis- 
memberment of  the  Caliphate. — Mohammedan   Civilization. 

REFERENCES    FOR   READING 

Seignobos,  Ch.  30,  "The  Eastern  Roman  Empire";   Ch.  31,  "Mo- 
hammed and  Mohammedanism"   (18).1 

lThe  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 

MOREY'S    ANCIENT    HIST. 29 


508  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Bemont  and  Monod,  Ch.  8,  "The  Roman  Empire  in  the  East"; 
Ch.  11,  "The  Arabian  Empire"  (24). 

Duruy,  Ch.  4,  "The  Greek  Empire";  Bk.  II.,  "The  Arab  In- 
vasion" (24). 

Curteis,  Ch.  10,  "The  Emperor  Justinian";  Ch.  11,  "The  Empire 
in  Relation  to  the  Barbarians  of  the  East"  (24). 

Gibbon,  Ch.  40,  "The  Reign  of  Justinian";  Ch.  41  (career  of  Beli- 
sarius);  Chs.  50-52  (extension  of  the  Mohammedan  power); 
Ch.  51  (Saracen  conquest  of  Spain) ;  Ch.  52  (siege  of  Constan- 
tinople) (18). 

Stanley,  Lect.  8,  "Mahometanism  in  its  Relation  to  the  Eastern 
Church"  (21). 

Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Bk.   TIL,  Ch.  4,   "Justinian"    (21). 

Morey,  Roman  Law,  pp.  158-163,  "The  Final  Codification  by 
Justinian"  (22). 

Smith,  R.  B.,  Lect.  3,  "Mohammedanism"  (teachings  of  the 
Koran)  (24). 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  CAROLINGIAN  EMPIRE 
I.     THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  LATIN  CHURCH 

The  Growth  of  the  Papacy. — We  have  thus  seen  the  break- 
ing up  and  decline  of  the  old  Eoman  empire — resulting  (1) 
from  the  German  occupation  of  the  West,  and  (2)  the  en- 
croachments made  upon  the  East  by  the  Slavs,  by  the  Per- 
sians, and  finally  by  the  Mohammedans.  We  are  now  prepared 
to  look  at  the  events  which  led  to  the  progress  and  consolida- 
tion of  western  Europe.  We  shall  see  an  alliance  formed 
between  the  two  strongest  powers  of  the  West — the  papacy  and 
the  Franks.  We  shall  then  see  the  founding  of  a  new  Frank  i-h 
dynasty,  called  the  Carolingian ;  and  the  revival  of  the*  Roman 
empire  under  the  Carolingian  rulers.  Our  attention  must 
first  be  directed  to  that  power  which  was  most  influential  in 
bringing  about  these  results — namely,  the  papacy,  the  chief 
authority  in  the  Latin  church. 


GROWTH   OF    THE    CAROLINGIAN    EMPIRE          509 

The  bishop  of  Rome — or  the  "  Pope  "  (papa,  father)  as  he 
was  now  called — had  been  acquiring  new  power  and  dignity 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  invasions.  This  was  due  to  a 
number  of  causes,  which  we  may  briefly  enumerate  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  the  belief  that  the  Roman  bishop  was  the  lineal  suc- 
cessor of  Saint  Peter;  (2)  the 
prestige  of  Rome  as  (lie  previous 
capital  of  the  world;  (3)  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  Roman  church  as 
the  "mother  church"  in  the  West; 
(1)  the  custom  of  appealing  to  the 
Roman  bishop  upon  moral  and  ec- 
clesiastical questions;  and  (5)  the 

personal  influence  of  three  great 

'  .  .  PAPAL  EMBLEMS 

bishops — Innocent  I.,  Leo  I.,  and 

Gregory  I. — whose  ability  as  statesmen  and  whose  vigorous 
policy  gave  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  a  commanding  position 
throughout  the  Christian  world. 

The  Schism  of  the  East  and  the  West :  the  Iconoclastic  Con- 
troversy.— Although  the  bishop  of  Rome  had  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  superior  to  other  bishops,  the  Eastern  emperor  as- 
sumed to  exercise  an  authority  over  him,  as  he  did  over  the 
ecclesiastical  officers  in  the  East.  The  distinction,  however, 
between  the  Western  or  Latin  churches,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  Eastern  or  Greek  churches  on  the  other,  was  so  deeply 
rooted  as  to  lead  to  their  final  separation.  The  most  conspicu- 
ous cause  of  this  schism  between  the  East  and  the  West  was 
the  famous  "  iconoclastic  controversy."  The  emperor  Leo  III. 
(the  Isaurian)  had  issued  an  edict  (726  A.  D.)  forbidding  the 
use  of  images,  pictures,  or  other  representations  of  Christ  and 
the  saints  in  the  churches,  and  commanding  the  destruction 
of  such  symbols.  As  the  emperor  claimed  that  his  authority 
was  superior  to  that  of  any  ecclesiastic— bishop,  patriarch,  or 
Pope — he  intended  this  edict  to  apply  to  the  Western  as  well 
as  to  the  Eastern  churches.  The  Pope,  Gregory  II.,  however, 


510  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  this  edict,  and  proclaimed 
that  all  persons  would  be  excommunicated  who  ventured  to 
obey  it.  By  this  act  the  Pope  proved  his  independence  of  the 
Eastern  emperor.  The  controversy  regarding  "  iconoclasm  " 
(image-breaking)  raged  fiercely  throughout  the  church.  As 
a  result  of  this — and  of  other  causes — the  Latin  church  was 
able  to  preserve  its  freedom  from  imperial  dictation,  and  to 
maintain  its  independent  organization,  under  the  supremacy 
of  the  bishop  of  Rome;  while  the  Greek  church  was  content 
to  fall  under  the  headship  of  the  emperor  at  Constantinople. 

Western  Monasticism. — The  influence  of  the  Latin  church, 
as  well  as  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  was  promoted  by  the 
establishment  of  monasticism  in  the  West.  This  form  of  se- 
cluded religious  life  had  long  prevailed  in  the  East,  where  its 
devotees  had  led  a  solitary  and  contemplative  existence.  When 
transplanted  to  the  WTest,  monasticism  assumed  a  more  practi- 
cal and  philanthropic  character.  Under  the  rule  of  Saint 
Benedict,  who  established  a  monastery  at  Monte  Cassino  in 
Italy  (529  A.  D.),  it  became  a  prominent  feature  of  the  West- 
ern church.  The  "  rule  of  Saint  Benedict  "  required  the  tak- 
ing of  three  vows — poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  It  also  re- 
quired the  performance  of  three  daily  duties — prayer,  study, 
and  manual  labor.  The  monastic  system  spread  throughout 
the  countries  of  Europe,  and  exercised  an  important  influence, 
not  only  in  strengthening  the  church,  but  also  in  improving 
the  condition  of  society.  By  encouraging  manual  labor,  the 
monks  restored  the  waste  lands  in  different  countries,  and  gave 
a  new  dignity  to  agricultural  pursuits.  By  their  copying  <>i 
manuscripts,  they  preserved  from  destruction  many  works  of 
ancient  literature,  and  encouraged  learning  and  scholarship. 
By  their  hospitality,  they  .furnished  a  refuge  for  the  weak,  the 
sick,  and  the  distressed,  and  presented  to  the  world  examples 
of  Christian  cliarilv. 

The  Papal  Missions. — The  influence  of  tlir  Latin  church 
was  also  extended  by  the  encouragement  «ri\vn  by  the  Popes  to 


GROWTH    OF    TI1K    CAUOU.MJIAN     KAll'IKi:  511 

missionary  \\ork.  \\  e  bave  already  seen  how  Augustine  was 
sent  (by  Pope  Gregory  I.)  to  IJrilain  (o  rescue  that  island  from 
paganism  and  to  bring  it  under  the  authority  of  the  church 
(p.  ID4).  The  Irish  monk  and  missionary,  Saint  Colinnban. 
was  sent  to  the  countries  about  the  upper  Rhine,  where  bis 
work  was  continued  by  his  disciple,  Saint  Gall,  the  founder 
of  one  of  the  great  monasteries  in  central  Europe.  But  the 
greatest  of  the  papal  missionaries  was  Saint  Boniface,  who 
was  sent  by  the  Pope  as  the  "  apostle  to  the  Germans."  His 
work  resulted  not  only  in  the  conversion  of  many  German 
tribes,  but  also  in  the  reform  of  the  Frankish  church  and  in 
bringing1  it  more  completely  under  the  papal  authority.  In 
tb is  work  he  received  the  aid  of  Charles  Martel,  who  had  now 
come  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  champion  of  Christendom  and 
the  faithful  supporter  of  the  Pope. 

The  Popes  and  the  Lombards. — The  people  of  western 
Europe  who  seemed  to  have  the  least  respect  for  the  dignity 
and  authority  of  the  Pope  were  bis  nearest  neighbors,  the 
Lombards.  The  Lombard  kings  desired  to  unite  the  whole  of 
Italy  under  their  own  power.  This  would  require,  in  the  first 
place,  the  conquest  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  which  was 
still  subject  to  the  Eastern  emperor.  It  would  require,  in  the 
next  place,  the  occupation  of  the  city  of  Rome,  the  seat  of  the 
papal  power.  If  this  were  accomplished,  the  Pope  would  be 
obliged  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  Lombard  king — a 
master  more  oppressive  than  the  emperor  whose  authority  the 
Pope  had  denied.  In  the  face  of  such  a  warlike  people  as 
the  Lombards,  the  Pope  was  practically  helpless,  unless  he 
could  find  some  military  support.  He  could  not  well  appeal 
to  the  Eastern  emperor  from  whom  he  wished  to  be  free.  The 
only  people  of  Europe  who  could  give  him  the  necessary  aid 
were  the  Franks — the  people  who  had  already  saved  Chris- 
tendom by  their  victory  over  the  Mohammedans  (p.  506).  The 
Pope,  Gregory  III.,  therefore,  first  turned  for  help  to  Charles 
Martel,  the  hero  of  the  battle  of  Tours ;  but  this  great  general 


512  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

died  before  the  desired  aid  could  be  given.  This  appeal  of  the 
Pope  for  military  assistance  against  the  Lombards  was  an 
important  step,  which  finally  led  to  the  alliance  of  the  Franks 
and  the  papacy — an  event  of  great  significance  in  the  history 
of  Europe. 

II.     THE  ALLIANCE  OF  THE  FRANKS  AND  THE  PAPACY 

The  Frankish  Monarchy;  Mayors  of  the  Palace. — We  may 
ask  why  the  Pope  called  for  help  upon  Charles  Martel  and 
not  upon  the  Frankish  king.  The  fact  is  that  the  Frankish 
kings  had  (t-ascd  to  possess  any  real  authority:  the  governing 
}>o\\vr  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  an  officer  of  the  king's 
household,  called  the  "  mayor  of  the  palace."  It  is  true  that 
the  early  kings — like  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  Merovingian 
dynasty,  and  Dagobert,  who  consolidated  the  Frankish  power 
— were  able  rulers;  but  from  the  time  of  Dagobert,  the  crown 
was  worn  by  feeble  men,  who  reigned  but  did  not  rule.  It  was 
said  by  an  old  writer,  "  There  was  nothing  left  for  the  king 
to  do  but  to  be  content  with  his  flowing  hair  and  long  beard, 
and  to  sit  on  the  throne  and  play  the  ruler"  (Eginhard). 
The  later  Merovingian  kings  are  hence  known  as  faineant  (do- 
nothing)  kings.  But  in  spite  of  the  weakness  of  these  so- 
called  kings,  the  Frankish  monarchy  found  able  rulers  in  the 
mayors  of  the  palace.  These  officers  had  succeeded  in  making 
the  Franks  the  strongest  nation  of  Europe.  (Charles  Martel 
was  mayor  of  the  palace  when  he  defeated  the  Mohammedans 
at  Tours;  and  it  was  to  him  as  the  real  representative  of  tho 
Frankish  people,  as  well  as  the  defender  of  Christendom,  that 
the  Pope  now  appealed  for  help  against  the  Lombards.  ) 

Pepin  the  Short  and  the  New  Dynasty. — At  his  death 
Charles  Martel  was  succeeded  by  his  two  sons,  jone  of  whom 
soon  retired  to  a  monastery.  This  left  the  other  son,  Pepin 
(or  Pippin)  surnamcd  th<>  Short  (h  Rrrf),  as  the  sole  mayor 
of  the  palace.  Pepin  was  not  disposed  to  exercise  the  real 


GliOWTH    OF    THE    CAKOLlNdlAN     KMl'IKIO  513 

power  of  king  without  also  having  the  title  of  king.  He 
needed  only  some  moral  support  to  depose  his  feeble  sovereign 
(Childeric  III.),  and  to  reign  in  his  stead.  He  therefore 
appealed  to  the  1'opr  as  the  supreme  arbiter  of  moral  ques- 
tions. The  Pope  (Zacharias)  replied,  "It  seems  better  that 
he  who  has  the  power  in  the  state  should  be  king,  and  should 
be  called  king  rather  than  he  who  is  falsely  so  called."  With 
this  sanction  Pepin  deposed  the  last  Merovingian,  assumed  the 
royal  title,  and  was  raised  on  a  shield,  according  to  the  Ger- 
man custom.  He  was  also  anointed  with  the  holy  oil,  accord- 
ing to  the  Jewish  custom,  by  Saint  Boniface,  now  archbishop 
of  Mainz.  This  ceremony  was  intended  to  give  a  religious 
sanction  to  the  royal  power,  and  to  indicate  that  the  king 
reigns  "  by  the  grace  of  God."  In  this  way  was  established 
a  new  line  of  Prankish  kings,  called  the  Carolingian  (or  Car- 
lovingian)  dynasty  (752  A.  D.).  The  effect  of  this  revolution 
was  to  cement  more  closely  the  alliance  of  the  Franks  with 
the  papacy,  and  to  give  to  the  Popes  the  military  support 
which  they  desired. 

Pepin's  Defeat  of  the  Lombards. — The  Pope  could  now  urge 
upon  Pepin  his  duty  to  protect  the  church  from  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Lombards.  Under  their  king,  Aistulf,  the  Lom- 
bards had  already  conquered  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  over- 
run the  central  part  of  Italy,  and  were  laying  siege  to  the 
city  of  Rome.  The  Pope  (now  Stephen  II.)  fled  to  Gaul  and 
besought  the  new  Frankish  king  to  come  to  his  aid,  at  the 
same  time  anointing  and  crowning  the  king  in  person,  thus 
emphasizing  the  papal  sanction  of  the  king's  title.  Pepin  was 
quick  to  respond.  He  crossed  the  Alps  with  his  army,  marched 
to  Rome,  relieved  the  city,  and  thinking  that  his  work  was 
accomplished,  returned  to  Gaul.  On  his  departure  from  Italy, 
the  Lombards  again  besieged  Rome  with  a  larger  force  than 
before.  A  second  time  the  Pope  appealed  to  the  Frankish 
king;  and  a  second  time  Pepin  led  his  army  into  Italy.  The 
king  was  now  determined  to  make  a  more  thorough  settlement 


514  THE    HUMAN    WUKLD 

of  the  Italian  trouble.  He  not  only  raised  the  siege  of  Rome, 
but  drove  the  Lombards  from  all  the  territory  they  had  re- 
cently captured,  and  extorted  from  their  king  a  promise  to 
respect  thereafter  the  rights  of  the  church. 

The  "Donation  of  Pepin"  and  the  Temporal  Power  of  the 
Popes. — The  question  now  arose  as  to  what  should  be  done 
with  the  territory  rescued  from  the  hands  of  the  Lombards. 
This  territory  was  claimed  by  the  Eastern  emperor  as  his  right- 
ful possession.  But  Pepin  replied  to  this  demand  that  his 
expedition  into  Italy  was  not  made  in  the  interests  of  the 
emperor,  but  in  the  interests  of  the  church;  that  he  himself 
had  no  desire  for  these  lands,  and  that  they  should  be  given 
to  the  Pope.  The  whole  territory — comprising  the  Exarchate 
of  Ravenna,  the  Pentap'olis,  and  the  Duchy  of  Rome  (map, 
p.  503) — was  therefore  turned  over  to  the  church  as  the  "  pat- 
rimony of  St.  Peter"  (756  A.  D.).  This  gift  is  called  the 
"  Donation  of  Pepin/'  and  it  laid  the  foundation  of  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  Popes.  (From  this  time  the  Pope  became 
a  temporal  sovereign  in  Italy,  exercising  a  political  as  well  as 
an  ecclesiastical  authority.)  But  quite  as  important  was  the 
fact  that  it  established  more  firmly  the  alliance  between  the 
Franks  and  the  papacy,  by  which  each  was  bound  to  assist 
the  other  in  their  respective  spheres  of  authority. 

III.     THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

The  Consolidation  of  Central  Europe. — The  movements 
which  we  have  already  considered — namely,  the  growth  of 
the  papacy  as  the  chief  power  in  the  Latin  church,  and  the 
alliance  of  the  Popes  with  the  Frankish  monarchy — resulted 
finally  in  the  establishment  of  a  Romano-Germanic  empire 
under  the  Carolingian  rulers.  The  founder  <>!'  I  his  empire  was 
Charles  the  (iivat.  who  was  the  son  of  Pepin.  ami  who  i>  iren- 
erally  known  as  Charlemagne.  Charlemagne  was  no!  only 
the  greatest  man  <>!'  his  a  .ire.  but  one  of  the  irivai  men  of  his- 


GROWTH    OF    Till:    (  AKOLIXr.TAN    EMPIRE  515 

tory.  After  the  death  of  Pcpin  (768  A.  D.)  he  ruled  for  a 
short  time  with  his  brother  Carloman;  but  at  the  death  of 
Carloman  he  became  the  sole  ruler  of  the  Frankish  nation. 
He  proved  himself  to  be  a  born  king  and  statesman.  He  was 
a  man  of  gigantic  stature,  of  imposing  presence,  and  of  broad 
ideas.  His  ambition  was  to  consolidate  the  peoples  of  central 
Europe  into  one  great  Christian  state,  and  to  lift  them  to  a 
higher  plane  of  civilization. 

A  considerable  part  of  his  reign  was  occupied  with  wars 
with  outlying  peoples,  and  with  efforts  to  organize  them  under 
his  authority  and  to  bring 
them  under  the  influence 
of  the  church.  We  can 
only  briefly  refer  to  these 
wars:  (1)  He  invaded 
the  kingdom  of  the  Lom- 
bards, to  settle  another 
quarrel  between  this  peo- 
ple and  the  Popes ;  he 
conquered  their  territory, 
and  was  himself  crowned  THE  IRQN  CRQWN  OF  THF  LoMBARDS 
with  the  "  iron  crown  of 

the  Lombards,"  1  thus  annexing  this  kingdom  to  his  own.  (2) 
He  invaded  northern  Spain  to  free  the  Christians  from  the 
yoke  of  the  Saracens  (Mohammedans).  On  his  retreat  the 
rear  guard  of  his  army  was  attacked  in  the  pass  of  Eonces- 
valles,  where  the  heroic  warrior  Roland  was  killed;  put  this 
disaster  did  not  prevent  Charlemagne  from  annexing  the 
northern  part  of  Spain,  which  he  did  under  the  name  of  the 
"Spanish  March."  (3)  He  made  war  upon  the  barbarous 

'This  famous  crown  takes  its  name  from  a  small  fillet  of  iron  within 
the  broad  band  of  gold  and  jewels  which  protects  it.  The  piece  of  iron  is 
said  to  have  been  wrought  from  a  nail  taken  from  the  true  cross,  and  to 
have  been  owned  by  Constantine  and  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  before  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Lombard  kings.  The  crown  was  afterward 
used  by  Charlemagne  and  Napoleon.  It  is  now  in  the  church  of  Monza,  a 
town  in  northern  Italy. 


JSTo.  S3. 


516 


GROWTH  OF  TIM:  <  AKOU.NCIAN    KMIMUK 


517 


nations  on  the  eastern  frontier— the  Avars  and  Bavarians;  he 
drove  hack  the  Avars,  and  added  to  hi<  territory  Bavaria.  Un- 
seat of  the  Bavarians,  who  had  hitherto  remained  independent. 
(I)  He  made  many  expeditions  against  the  Saxons  on  the 
north  of  the  Kliine. 
who  long  resisted 
his  power,  but  who 
were  finally  reduced 
to  his  authority  and 
brought  under  the 
influence  of  Chris- 
tianity. By  these 
conquests  the  do- 
minions of  Charle- 
magne were  ex- 
tended over  a  large 
part  of  central  Eu- 
rope, and  included 
the  following  chief 
provinces:  Saxony 
and  Frisia,  Austra- 
sia  and  Neustria, 
Burgundy  and 
Aquitaine,  Lom- 
bardy  (northern  Italy)  and  Bavaria,  together  with  the  Spanish 
March  on  the  south,  and  the  Avaric  March  on  the  east.  This 
extensive  dominion  seemed  to  need  only  the  sanction  of  the 
Pope  to  make  it  in  name,  as  well  as  in  fact,  an  empire. 

Coronation  of  Charlemagne  as  Roman  Emperor  (800  A.  D.). 
—At  this  time  the  imperial  title  at  Constantinople  was  held 
by  a  woman — the  empress  Irene — whose  authority  was  not 
recognized  in  the  West.  It  needed  only  a  suitable  occasion 
to  confer  the  title  upon  Charlemagne,  who  was  now  the  most 
conspicuous  ruler  in  Europe  and  the  ablest  defender  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  occasion  soon  presented  itself.  When  the  Pope. 


CHARLEMAGNE  (Traditional  Portrait) 


518  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

Leo  III.,  was  driven  from  Rome  by  an  insurrection,  Charle- 
magne, with  his  army,  entered  the  city  and  reinstated  him. 
As  a  reward  for  this  service,  the  Pope  on  Christmas  Day,  in 
the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  placed  upon  Charlemagne's  head  a 
golden  crown,  and  saluted  him  as  "  Charles  Augustus,  crowned 
of  God,  great  and  pacific  emperor  of  the  Romans."  The  Ro- 
man people  who  witnessed  this  impressive  ceremony  in  the 
church  shouted  their  approval,  and  the  Frankish  soldiers  out- 
side the  building  joined  in  the  acclamation.  In  describing 
this  memorable  event,  Mr.  Bryce  says :  "  In  that  shout,  echoed 
by  the  Franks  without,  was  pronounced  the  union,  so  long  in 
preparation,  so  mighty  in  its  consequen'ces,  of  the  Roman  and 
the  Teuton,  of  the  memories  and  the  civilization  of  the  South 
and  the  fresh  energy  of  the  North,  and  from  that  moment 
modern  history  begins." 

The  coronation  of  Charlemagne  has  been  variously  inter- 
preted. It  has  been  regarded  as  the  revival  of  the  Western 
Roman  empire  which  had  been  extinguished  by  the  deposition 
of  Romulus  Augustulus  (p.  489) ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  there 
had  never  been  recognized  a  Western  Empire  as  legally  distinct 
from  the  Eastern.  Again,  it  has  been  considered  as  the  trans- 
ference of  the  imperial  title  from  the  East  to  the  West;  but 
the  empire  in  the  East  continued  to  exist  for  centuries  as  a 
rival  to  that  of  the  West.  It  has  also  been  regarded  as  the 
simple  recognition  of  the  imperial  position  which  Charlemagne 
himself  had  achieved  and  to  which  he  was  entitled  by  his  own 
conquests,  (tt  has  finally  been  considered  as  the  bestowal  of 
the  title  by  the  Pope  as  a  reward  for  Charlemagne's  services 
to  the  church,  and  to  indicate  that  his  authority  was  derived 
from  the  Pope.;  These  various  opinions  are,  to  a  great  extent, 
merely  theories  to  justify  the  later  claims  set  up  by  the  par- 
tisans of  the  emperor  or  of  the  Pope.  Charlcniiiirnc  himself 
professed  to  be  surprised  by  the  act  of  coronation;  but  he 
nevertheless  gracefully  accepted  the  title  which  was  thereby 
conferred. 


GROWTH   OF   THE   CAROLINGIAN    EMPIRE          519 

Charlemagne  and  his  Imperial  Government. — Charlemagne 
was  now  both  Frankish  king  and  Roman  emperor.  But  it  is 
difficult  for  us  to  separate  these  two  functions;  since  his  gov- 
ernment, like  that  of  his  predecessors,  was  made  up  of  both 
German  and  Roman  features,  (in  looking  at  the  political 
organization  of  Charlemagne's  empire  we  may  distinguish  be- 
tween the  central  government  and  the  local  government. 

(1)  The  central  government  consisted  of  the  emperor  him- 
self, the  officers  of  the  palace,  and  the  national  assemblies. 
The  emperor  was  of  course  the  supreme  head  of  the  empire, 
somewhat  like  the  old  Roman  prince.     His  authority  extended 
over  all  the  affairs  of  the  state.     He  was  assisted  by  the  officers 
of  the  palace,  called  the  "  palatines,"  each  one  of  whom  had 
charge  of  some  particular  branch  of  administration,  like  the 
issuing  of  the  royal  decrees,  the  administration  of  justice,  the 
care  of  the  imperial  household,  and  similar  matters.     One  of 
the  peculiar  features  of  Charlemagne's  government  was  the 
preservation  of  the  old  German  assemblies,  in  which  the  people 
had  some  share  of  political  authority.     There  were  two  of  these 
assemblies  held  each  year.     The  larger  one,  which  met  in  the 
spring  and  was  called  the  "  Field  of  May,"  was  made  up  not 
only  of  the  nobles,  but  of  a  large  part  of  the  common  freemen. 
This  assembly  generally  met  in  the  open  air,  and  approved  the 
laws  submitted  to  it  by  the  emperor.     The  smaller  assembly, 
which  met  in  the  autumn,  was  a  gathering  of  the  various 
officers  of  the  empire  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  account  of 
their  administration,  and  of  laying  out  the  work  for  the  coming 
year  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the  emperor. 

(2)  The  local  government  consisted  of  a  large  number  of 
officers  who  exercised  authority  within  the  different  provinces 
or  districts.     There  were  several  kinds  of  such  local  officers. 
There  were  two  kings,  the  sons  of  Charlemagne,  who  ruled 
over  Aquitaine  and  Italy.    Then  there  were  several  dukes,  the 
chiefs  of  barbarian  tribes,  who  were  permitted  to  govern  their 
own  people,  subject  to  the  imperial  will;  such  were  the  dukes 


520  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

of  Brittany  in  Gaul,  and  of  Spoletum  and  Beneventum  in 
Italy  (p.  503).  But  the  largest  number  of  these  local  officers 
were  counts,  or  "  grafs," — there  were  about  three  hundred 
of  these, — who  were  appointed  directly  by  the  emperor  to 
carry  out  his  will  in  their  separate  districts  or  counties.  The 
districts  on  the  borders  of  the  empire  were  called  "marks," 
and  were  placed  under  officers  called  "  margraves."  Bishops 
were  also  appointed  over  the  various  dioceses  to  supervise  the 
affairs  of  the  church.  But  all  these  officers,  whatever  their 
rank,  were  subject  to  the  supreme  authority  of  the  emperor. 
To  keep  a  strict  control  over  all  these  local  governors,  and  to 
protect  the  interests  of  the  people,  Charlemagne  appointed  two 
special  ollicers.  called  misxi  ilominici — the  one  a  count  and 
tin-  other  a  bishop — to  travel  together  through  the  various 
provinces  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  affairs 'of  each 
locality,  of  correcting  abuses,  and  of  administering  justice. 
These  last-named  officers  formed  a  sort  of  connecting  link 
between  the  central  and  local  governments.  In  the  political 
system  which  he  organized,  Charlemagne  showed  his  great 
ability  as  a  statesman  and  an  efficient  administrator. 

The  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne. — The  comprehensive 
mind  of  Charlemagne  is  seen  in  the  vast  number  of  laws 
passed  by  him  for  the  government  of  his  people.  These  laws 
were^called  "capitularies,"  and  related  to  all  matters  which 
concerned  the  interests  of  his  subjects.  More  than  eleven  hun- 
dred of  such  laws  have  been  collected  and  preserved  to  us;  so 
that  we  can  learn  much  from  them  not  only  regarding  the 
high  ideals  of  Charlemagne,  but  regarding  the  condition  of 
Kuropean  society  during  this  time.  These  laws  emanated 
from  the  emperor  himself  or  from  his  immediate  counselors, 
and  were  prepared  so  as  to  meet  the  approval  of  the  assemblies, 
to  which  they  were  generally  submitted.  They  related  to  the 
duties  of  officers,  the  administration  of  justice,  the  punishment 
of  crime,  the  regulation  of  industry,  the  suppression  of  beg- 
gary, Ihe  ei'r.Mir.rn-ineut  of  religion.  Mild  a  multitude  of  other 


CiKOWTH    OF    THE    CAKOLlACi  IAN     KMIMKK  521 

matters,  all  of  which  indicate  the  great  concern  which  the 
emperor  had  for  the  welfare  of  his  people. 

Charlemagne  and  European  Civilization. — Charlemagne's 
-rcatcsi  distinction  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  was  a  promoter  of 
rivili/aiion.  He  brought  about  a  union  of  the  German  and 
the  Roman  people,  and  laid  the  basis  of  a  new  European  soci- 
ety. He  eiieo united  habits  of  industry  among  his  people,  and 
published  rules  for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  lit-  encouraged 
the  revival  of  learning  and  of  art.  The  long  period  which  had 
elapsed  since  the  beginning  of  the  invasions  had  been  a  period 
of  intellectual  decline.  But  Charlemagne  was  a  man  who  ap- 
preciated culture.  He  gathered  about  him  the  most  learned 
men  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  encouraged  them  in  their 
scholarly  pursuits.  He  also  looked  after  the  education  of  his 
subjects.  He  established  schools  in  connection  with  the  cathe- 
drals and  monasteries,  as  well  as  a  "  school  of  the  palace " 
under  the  supervision  of  the  famous  scholar,  Alcuin,  arch- 
bishop of  York.  He  promoted  a  taste  for  architecture,  and 
built  many  churches,  one  of  which  was  the  cathedral  at  his 
capital,  Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle),  where  he  was  at  last  buried 
(814  A.  D.).  Charlemagne  was  the  most  efficient  agent  in 
uniting  the  German  and  the  western  Roman  world,  and  in 
laying  the  basis  of  a  new  Romano-Germanic  society,  and  thus 
in  furnishing  a  broader  foundation  for  the  states  which  were 
to  be  formed  from  the  ruins  of  the  old  Roman  empire.  Al- 
though his  empire  fell  to  pieces  after  his  death,  the  beneficial 
results  of  his  policy  and  work  have  remained  as  a  heritage  to 
modern  Europe. 

General  Summary. — The  name  of  Charlemagne  closes  the 
long  period  of  ancient  history  which  has  been  the  subject  of 
our  study.  As  we  look  hack  we  are  able  to  see  the  successive 
stages  of  progress  in  the  development  of  the  old  world. 

(1)  In  the  first  place,  we  have  seen  the  beginnings  of 
civilization  in  the  East — the  early  struggle  of  man  for  exist- 
ence, and  the  growth  of  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  com- 


522  THE    ROMAN    WORLD 

merce;  the  formation  of  cities,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  great 
empires,  and  the  initial  stages  in  the  development  of  art, 
science,  and  religion.  In  bur  study  of  the  Oriental  world  we 
found  that  man  first  emerged  from  barbarism  in  those  centers 
which  were  best  fitted  by  nature  for  human  existence — the 
fertile  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile.  We  found  that 
the  different  forms  of  culture  which  were  developed  in  these 
localities  by  the  Babylonians  and  the  Egyptians  were  brought 
together  and  commingled  in  Syria.  Here  we  saw  the  rise  of 
two  important  nations  which  carried  to  the  highest  point  of 
development  two  phases  of  ancient  civilization — the  com- 
mercial under  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  religious  under  the 
Hebrews.  Then  followed  the  consolidation  of  the  Orient  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  Assyrians,  the  first  great  world  power, 
which  brought  into  a  closer  union  the  various  civilizations  of 
the  East.  The  dissolution  of  the  Assyrian  empire  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  still  wider  organization  of  the  Oriental  peoples 
under  the  second  world  power,  Persia,  which  represented  the 
highest  unity  attained  by  the  Oriental  world. 

(2)  In  the  next  place,  we  have  seen  how  civilization  passed 
from  the  East  to  the  West,  and  found  a  new  center  in  Greece — 
the  heir  of  the  Orient,  the  home  of  liberty,  and  the  seat  of  a 
higher  intellectual  and  aesthetic  culture.  In  our  study  of  the 
Greek  world  we  saw  the  rise  of  small  city  states  scattered  over 
the  different  parts  of  Hellas,  each  being  the  center  of  an  in- 
dependent political  life.  We  saw  the  united  struggle  of  these 
cities  against  the  encroachments  of  the  East,  resulting  in  their 
triumph  and  the  establishment  of  a  period  of  peace  Mini 
prosperity,  during  which  time  they  developed  an  art,  a  litera- 
ture,  and  a  philosophy  unequaled  by  any  other  nation.  We 
then  saw  how  their  great  love  of  independence  brought  about 
jealousies  and  conflicts,  leading  to  the  interference  of  a  foreign 
power.  ;m<]  tlu-  irrowth  of  the  third  great  world  empire  under 
Alexander — an  empire  which  joined  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
worlds  in  one  common  civilization. 


GROWTPI   OF    THE    CAHOL1NG1AN     KMl'IRE          523 

(3)  Finally,  we  have  seen  the  shifting  of  the  center  of  the 
ancient  world  from  Greece  to  Italy  and  the  growth  of  the  im- 
perial dominion  of  Rome.  In  our  special  study  of  the  Roman 
world,  we  saw  not  only  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms 
and  the  expansion  of  the  Roman  territory,  but  the  devel- 
opment of  the  idea  of  incorporation  as  a  political  principle 
— the  bringing  of  conquered  peoples  within  the  state  and  the 
extension  of  the  privileges  of  citizenship.  We  noticed  that  the 
struggles  between  different  parties,  however  bitter  they  were, 
resulted  in  the  more  complete  equalization  of  rights  and  the 
establishment  of  a  universal  peace.  We  saw  that  the  Roman 
genius  for  organization  was  not  exhausted  until  the  most 
important  civilized  nations  of  the  old  world  were  brought  un- 
der one  system  of  government,  law,  and  religion.  And  we 
saw  at  last  that  when  the  Empire  was  broken  up,  and  the 
Romans  anU  the  Germans  were  brought  together,  the  influence 
of  Rome  still  remained  as  a  beneficial  element  in  the  recon- 
struction of  European  society. 

From  the  study  of  these  successive  movements,  we  must  be 
convinced  of  the  "  continuity  of  history,"  of  the  fact  that  the 
achievements  of  one  age  or  people  have  been  transmitted  to 
those  succeeding,  and  also  of  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  wars 
and  revolutions,  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations,  the  progress  of 
the  race  as  a  whole  has  been  onward  and  upward. 

SYNOPSIS   FOB   REVIEW 

I.  THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  LATIN  CHURCH.— The  Growth  of  the 
Papacy. — The  Schism  of  the  East  and  the  West:  the  "Iconoclas- 
tic Controversy." — Western  Monasticism. — The  Papal  Missions. — 
The  Popes  and  the  Lombards. 

II.  THE   ALLIANCE   OF   THE    FRANKS   AND    THE    PAPACY. — The 
Frankish  Monarchy;  Mayors  of  the  Palace. — Pepin  the  Short  and 
the  New  Dynasty. — Pepin's  Defeat  of  the  Lombards. — The  "Dona- 
tion of  Pepin,"  and  the  Temporal  Power  of  the  Popes. 

III.  THE    EMPIRE    OF    CHARLEMAGNE. — The    Consolidation    of 
Central  Europe. — Coronation  of  Charlemagne  as  Eoman  Emperor. 
— Charlemagne  and  his  Imperial  Government. — The  Capitularies 
of  Charlemagne. — Charlemagne  and  European  Civilization. — Gen- 
eral Summary. 


524  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING 

Duruy,  Bk.  III.,  "The  Carolingian  Empire"   (24).* 

Emerton,  Ch.  9,  "Rise  of  the  Christian  Church";  Ch.  12,  "The 
Franks  from  Charles  Martel  to  Charlemagne";  Ch.  14, 
"Foundation  of  the  Mediaeval  Empire"  (24). 

Thatcher  and  Schwill,  Ch.  5,  "The  Franks"  (24). 

Curteis,  Ch.  13,  "The  Popes  and  the  Franks  in  Italy";  Ch.  14, 
"The  Franks  and  the  Papacy"  (24). 

Robinson,  Ch.  4,  "The  Rise  of  the  Papacy";  Ch.  7,  "Charlemagne" 
(24). 

Seignobos,  Ch.  32,  "Charles  the  Great  and  the  New  Empire"  (18). 

Bemont  and  Monod,  Ch.  12,  "The  Faineant  Kings";  Ch.  13,  "Em- 
pire of  the  Franks"  (24). 

Adams,  Ch.  6,  "The  Formation  of  the  Papacy";  Ch.  7,  "The 
Franks  and  Charlemagne"  (24). 

Oman,  Ch.  16,  "The  Lombards  and  the  Papacy";  Ch.  22,  "Charles 
the  Great  and  the  Empire"  (24). 

Bryce,  Ch.  4,  "Restoration  of  the  Empire  in  the  West";  Ch.  5, 
"Empire  and  Policy  of  Charles";  Ch.  7,  "Theory  of  the  Medi- 
aeval Empire"  (24). 

Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  6,  "Western 
Monasticism";  Ch.  7,  "Gregory  the  Great";  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  7, 
"Iconoclasm";  Ch.  9,  "Severance  of  Latin  and  Greek  Chris- 
tianity" (21). 

Guggenberger,  History  of  the  Christian  Era  (21). 

Freeman,  Essay,  "The  Unity  of  History"   (3). 

Henderson,  Documents,  pp.  274-314,  "The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict" 
(25). 

Eginhard,  Life  of  Charlemagne  (27). 

Translations  and  Reprints,  Vol.  VI.,  No.  5,  "Laws  of  Charles  the 
Great"  (25). 

lfThe  figure  In   parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  In   the 
Appendix,  where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


APPENDIX 

A  CLASSIFIED  LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  BOOKS  UPON  ANCIENT 

HISTORY1 

I.     GENERAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS 

(1)  Ancient  History,  General. 

Ducoudray,  G.    History  of  Ancient  Civilization.    N.  Y.  1889. 

Fisher,  G.  P.  Outlines  of  Universal  History.  Part  I.  An- 
cient History.  N.  Y.  1885. 

Ploetz,  C.  Epitome  of  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern 
History.  Part  I.  Ancient  History.  Bost.  1884. 

Rawlinson,  G.     Manual  of  Ancient  History.     N.  Y.  1880. 

Smith,  P.     History  of  the  World.     Ancient  History.     3  vols. 

Seignobos,  C.  History  of  Civilization.  Tr.  by  A.  H.  Wilde. 
Vol.  I.  Ancient  Civilization.  N.  Y.  1906. 

Souttar,  R.  Short  History  of  Ancient  Peoples.  Lond. 
1904. 

(2)  Anthropology  and  Ethnology. 

Brinton,  D.  G.     Races  and  Peoples.     N.  Y.  1890. 
Clodd,  E.     Story  of  Primeval  Man.     N.  Y.  1895. 
Deniker,  J.     Races  of  Man.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Hoernes,  M.     Primitive  Man.  Lond.   1901.     (Primer.) 
Joly,  N.     Man  before  Metals.     N.  Y.  1883. 
Keary,  C.  F.     Dawn  of  History.     N.  Y. 
Morris,  C.     The  Aryan   Race.     Chicago,   1892. 
Taylor,  I.     Origin  of  the  Aryans.     Lond.  1890. 
Tylor,  E.  B.     Primitive  Culture.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1874. 

Early  History  of  Mankind.     Bost.  1878. 

Anthropology.     N.  Y.  1881. 

Sayce,  A.  H.     Races  of  the  Old  Testament.    Lond.  1891. 
Starr,  F.     Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress.    Mead- 
ville.  1895. 

(3)  Miscellaneous  Works. 

Bourne,  H.  E.  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics  in  the 
Elementary  and  Secondary  School.  N.  Y.  1902. 

Clarke,  J.  F.  Ten  Great  Religions:  an  Essay  in  Com- 
parative Theology.  Bost.  1871. 

1  The  books  contained  in  this  list  have  been  selected  with  special  refer- 
ence to  their  educational  value  in  connection  with  the  work  of  secondary 
schools.  More  complete  lists  may  be  found  in  the  author's  "Outlines  of 
Greek  History"  and  "Outlines  of  Roman  History." 

MOREY'S   ANCIENT   HIST. —  30  535 


526  APPENDIX 

Committee  of  Seven.  American  Historical  Association, 
Study  of  History  in  Schools.  N.  Y.  1903. 

Diesterweg,  G.,  and  others.  Methods  of  Teaching  History. 
Bost.  1883. 

Freeman,  E.  A.  Historical  Essays.  Second  Series.  Lond. 
1873. 

-  Comparative  Politics:  with  Lecture  on  the  Unity  of 
History.     N.  Y.  1874. 

New   England   History    Teachers'  Association.     Historical 

Sources  in  Schools.     N.  Y.  1902. 
Historical  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools.    Bost.  1904. 

EL    THE  ORIENTAL  WOULD 

(4)  Oriental  History,  General. 

Boughton,  W.     History  of  Ancient  Peoples.     N.  Y.  1897. 
Duncker,    M.      History    of    Antiquity    (Oriental    Nations). 

Tr.  by  E.  Abbott.     6  vols.     Lond.  1877-82. 
Hommel,  F.    Civilization  of  the  East.    N.  Y.  1900.    (Primer.) 
Lenormant,  F.,  and  Chevallier,  E.     Ancient  History  of  the 

East.     2  vols.     Phil.  1871. 
Maspero,   G.   C.   C.     Life  in   Ancient  Egypt  and   Assyria. 

N.  Y.   1892. 

Dawn    of    Civilization.    Egypt    and    Assyria.     Lond. 

1894. 

Struggle  of  the  Nations.     N.  Y.  1897. 

-  Passing  of  the  Empires.     N.  Y.  1899. 

McCurdy,  J.  F.     History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments. 

3  vols.     N.  Y.  1895-1901. 

Sayce,  A.  H.    Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,     N.  Y.  1889. 
Rawlinson,    G.    Five    Great    Monarchies.     3    vols.     N.    Y. 

1871. 
Smith,    P.    Ancient    History    of    the    East.    N.    Y.    1871. 

(Students'  Series.) 

(5)  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

Budge,  C.  A.  W.  Babylonian  Life  and  History.  Lond. 
1891. 

Goodspeed,  G.  S.  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  As- 
syrians. N.  Y.  1904. 

Jastrow,  M.  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  Bost. 
1898. 

Murison,  R.  G.     Babylonia  and  Assyria.     Edin.     (Primer.) 

Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.  History  of  Art  in  Chaldaea  and 
Assyria.  2  vols.  Lond.  1884. 

Ragozin,  Z.  A.    Story  of  Chaldaea.      N.  Y.  1891. 

Story  of  Assyria.       N.  Y.  1891. 

Rogers,  R.   W.    Babylonia  and   Assyria.     2  vols.       N.  Y. 

1889. 
Sayce,  A.  H.    Social  Life  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 

Lond.  1893. 


APPENDIX  527 

Schmidt,  N.  Outlines  of  a  History  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria. Ithaca. 

Smith,  (J.  Assyria  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall  of 
Nineveh.  Lond. 

(6)  Egypt. 

Breasted,  J.  H.     History  of  Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times 

to  the  Persian  Conquest.     N.  Y.  1905. 
Brugsch-Bey,  H.     History  of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs. 

Revised  by  M.  Broderick.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Edwards,  A.  B.     Pharaohs,  Fellahs,  and  Explorers.     N.  Y. 

1892. 

Erman,  A.     Life  in  Ancient  Egypt.     Lond.  1894. 
Mariette,  A.    Outlines  of  Ancient  Egyptian  History.     N.  Y. 

1862. 

Maspero,  G.  C.  C.     Egyptian  Archaeology.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Murison,  R.  G.     History  of  Egypt.     Edin.     (Primer.) 
Newbury,  P.  E.,  and  Garstang,  J.     Short  History  of  Egypt. 

Lond.  1904. 

Petrie,  W.  M.  F.     History  of  Egypt.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1896. 
Perrot,   G.,    and   Chipiez,   C.     History   of   Art   in   Ancient 

Egypt.     2  vols.     Lond.   1883. 
Rawlinson,  G.     History  of  Egypt.     2  vols.     Lond.  1881. 

-  Story  of  Egypt.     N.  Y.  1892. 
Wendel,  F.  C.  H.    History  of  Egypt.    N.  Y.  1890.    (Primer.) 

(7)  Phoenicia  and  Judea. 

Day,  E.     Social  Life  of  the  Hebrews.     N.  Y.  19O1. 
Edersheim,  E.  W.     Laws  and  Polity  of  the  Jews.     Lond. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.     Story  of  the  Jews.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Kendrick,  J.     Phoenicia.     Lond.  1855. 
Kent,  C.  F.     History  of  the  Jewish  People.     N.  Y.  1899. 

-  History  of  the  Hebrew  People.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1899- 
1901. 

Milman,   H.   H.     History  of   the  Jews.     Lond.   and   N.  Y. 

1878. 

Ottley,  R.  L.     Short  History  of  the  Hebrews.     N.  Y.  1901. 
Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.     History  of  Art  in  Phoenicia. 

2  vols.     Lond.  1885. 
Rawlinson,  G.     History  of  Phrenicia.     Lond.   1889. 

-  Story  of  Phoenicia.     N.  Y.  1896. 

Renan,  E.     History  of  the  People  of  Israel.     5  vols.     Bost. 

1888-95. 
Sayce,  .A.  H.    Early  History  of  the  Hebrews.    N.  Y.  1897. 

(8)  Media  and  Persia. 

Benjamin,  S.  G.  W.     Story  of  Persia.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Ragozin,    Z.    A.     Story    of    Media,    Babylon,    and    Persia. 

N.  Y.  1891. 
Vaux,  W.  S.  W.     Persia  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 

Arab  Conquest.     Lond. 


529  APPENDIX 

(9)  Sources  of  Oriental  History. 

Hammurabi,  Code  of.     Tr.  by  C.  H.  W.  Johns.     Edin.  1903. 

Same  tr.  by  R.  F.  Harper,  Chicago,  1904. 
Josephus,  F.     Works,  Tr.  by  W.  Whiston.     Lond.  1870. 
Old  Testament.     Revised  Version. 
Sayce,  A.  H.     Records  of  the  Past.     6  vols.     Lond.  1888-92. 


in.     THE  GREEK  WORLD 

(10)  Greek  History,  General. 

Abbott,  E.     History  of  Greece.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1888-92. 

Allcroft,  A.  H.,  and  Masom,  W.  F.     History  of  Greece.     6 
vols.     Lond. 

Bury,  J.  B.     History  of  Greece  (one  vol.  edition).     N.  Y. 
1900. 

Butcher,  S.  H.     Some  Aspects  of  the  Greek  Genius.    Lond. 
and  N.  Y.  1893. 

Cox,  G.  W.     General  History  of  Greece.     N.  Y.  1894.     (Stu- 
dents' Series.) 
—  The  Greeks  and  the  Persians.     N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 

-  The  Athenian  Empire.     N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 

Curteis,  A.  M.     Rise   of  the   Macedonian   Empire.     N.   Y. 

1887.     (Epochs.) 

Curtius,  E.     History  of  Greece.     5  vols.     N.  Y.  1875. 
Duruy,  V.     History  of  Greece.     8  vols.     Bost.  1892. 
Felton,   C.   C.     Greece,   Ancient   and    Modern.     2   vols.   in 

one.     Bost.  1893. 
Freeman,     E.     A.     History    of    Federal     Government    in 

Greece  and  Italy.     2d  Edition.     Lond.  1893. 
Gardner,  P.     New  Chapters  in  Greek  History.     Lond.  and 

N.  Y.  1892. 
Grote,  G.    History  of  Greece.     12  vols.    N.  Y.  1857.     Same 

10  vols.     Lond.  1888. 
Holm,  A.    History  of  Greece.     4  vols.     Lond.  and  N.  Y. 

1894-98. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Survey  of  Greek  Civilization.    Meadville. 

1896. 

-  Story  of  Alexander's  Empire.     N.  Y.  1897. 

Greek  Life  and  Thought  from  the  Age  of  Alexander 

to  the  Roman  Conquest.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1887. 

-  Greek  World  under  Roman  Sway.     Lond.  and  N.  Y. 
1890. 

Oman,  C.  W.  C.     History  of  Greece.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1901. 
Sunkey,  C.     Spartan  and  Theban  Supremacy.     N.  Y.  1887. 

(Epochs.) 
Shuckburgh,  E.  S.     Short  History  of  the  Greeks.    Camb. 

1901. 
Smith,    Wm.     History    of    Greece,    with    supplementary 

« -Imptrrs  on  the  History  of  Literature  and  Art.     N.  Y. 

(Students'  Series.) 


APPENDIX  529 

(11)  Greek  Antiquities.     Public  and  Private  Life. 

Becker,   W.   A.     Charicles.     Lond.   1866. 

Bliimner,  H.  Home  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  Lond. 
1893. 

Davidson,  T.     Education  of  the  Greek  People.     N.  Y.  1894. 

Fowler,  W.  W.  City  State  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
N.  Y.  1893. 

Gardner,  P.,  and  Jevons,  F.  B.  Manual  of  Greek  Antiqui- 
ties. N.  Y.  1895. 

Gilbert,  G.  Constitutional  Antiquities  of  Athens  and 
Sparta.  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1895. 

Greenidge,  A.  H.  J.  Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional 
History.  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1896. 

Guhl,  E.  K.,  and  Koner,  W.  D.  Life  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Lond.  1889. 

Gulick,  C.  B.     Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiqui- 
ties. N.  Y.  1897. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Old  Greek  Life.     N.  Y.  1876. 

-  Social  Life  in  Greece.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1890. 
Seyffert,    O.     Dictionary   of   Classical   Antiquities.     Lond. 

1891. 
Smith,  Wm.    Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. 

3d  Edition.     2  vols.     Lond.  1890. 
Whibley,  L.     Political  Parties  in  Athens.     Camb.  1889. 

Greek  Oligarchies.     N.  Y.  1896. 

(12)  Greek  Archaeology  and  Art. 

Butler,  H.  C.     Story  of  Athens.     N.  Y.  1902. 
Collignon,  M.     Manual  of  Greek  Archaeology.     Lond.  1886. 
Gardner,  E.  A.     Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture.     Lond.  and 
N.  Y.  1897. 

Ancient  Athens.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Harrison,  J.  E.  Introductory  Studies  of  Greek  Art.  Lond. 
1904. 

and  Verrall,  M.  de  G.    Mythology  and  Monuments 

of  Ancient  Athens.     Lond.  1890. 

Mitchell,    L.    M.    History    of    Greek    Sculpture.    2    vols. 

N.  Y.  1883. 
Murray,  A.  S.     History  of  Greek  Sculpture.     2  vols.     Lond. 

1890. 

-  Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology.    N.  Y.  1892. 
Tarbell,  F.  B.     History  of  Greek  Art.     Lond.  1896. 

(13)  Mycenaean  Age. 

Hall,  H.  R.     The  Oldest  Civilization  of  Greece.     Lond.  1901. 
Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.     History  of  Art  in  Primitive 

Greece;  Mycenian  Art.     2  vols.     Lond.  1894. 
Ridgeway,  W.    Early  Age  of  Greece.    2  vols.    Camb.  1901-02. 
Schliemann,   H.     Mycenae.     Lond.   and   N.   Y.   1878. 

Tiryns.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1886. 


530  APPENDIX 

Schliemann,  H.     Troja.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1901. 
Schuchhardt,  C.     Schliemann's   Excavations.     Lond.  1891. 
Tsountas,    C.,    and    Manatt,    J.    I.    The    Mycenaean   Age. 
Bost.  1897. 

(14)  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age. 

Jebb,  R.  C.     Introduction  to  Homer.     Bost.  1869. 

Keller,  A.  G.     Homeric  Society.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Lang,  A.     Homer  and  the  Iliad.     N.  Y.  1892. 

Leaf,  W.    Companion  to  the  Iliad.    N.  Y.  1892. 

Warr,  G.  C.  W.    The  Greek  Epic.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1895. 

(15)  Greek  Literature  and  Philosophy. 

Benn,  A.  W.  Philosophy  of  Greece  in  Relation  to  the  His- 
tory and  Character  of  the  People.  Lond.  1898. 

Burt,  B.  C.    Brief  History  of  Greek  Philosophy.    Bost,  1889. 

Fowler,  H.  N.     History  of  Greek  Literature.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Jebb,  R.  C.     Greek  Literature.     N.  Y.  1878.     (Primer.) 

Jevons,  F.  B.     History  of  Greek  Literature.     Lond.  1889. 

Lawton,  W.  C.  Introduction  to  Classical  Greek  Literature. 
N.  Y.  1903. 

Marshall,  J.  Short  Sketch  of  Greek  Philosophy.  N.  Y. 
1891. 

Mayor,  J.  B.     Sketch  of  Ancient  Philosophy.     Camb.  1881. 

Moulton,  R.  G.  Ancient  Classical  Drama.  Lond.  and 
N.  Y.  1890. 

Murray,  G.  G.  A.  History  of  Ancient  Greek  Literature. 
N.  Y. 

Symonds,  J.  A.  Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets.  2  vols.  Lond. 
1873. 

Zeller,  E.  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Greek  Philosophy. 
N.  Y.  1886. 

(16)  Greek  Religion  and  Mythology. 

Bulfinch,  T.    Age  of  Fable.     (New  Edition.)     Phil.  1898. 
Collignon,  M.     Manual  of  Greek  Mythology  in  relation  to 

Greek  Art.     Lond.  1890. 

Gayley,  C.  M.     Classical  Myths.    Bost.  1893. 
Guerber,  H.  A.     Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Murray,  A.  S.    Manual  of  Mythology.     Phil.  1895. 

(17)  Sources  of  Greek  History. 

^Eschylus.    Tragedies.    Tr.  by  E.  H.  Plumptre.    N.  Y.  1868. 
Aristotle.    Athenian  Constitution.     Tr.  by  F.  G.  Kenyon. 

Lond.  1891. 
Arrian.    Anabasis  of  Alexander.    Tr.  by  E.  J.  Chinnock. 

Lond.  1893. 
Demosthenes.     Orations.     5    vols.     (Bohn.)    ...    2    vols. 

(Harpers.) 


APPENDIX  531 

Herodotus.  Tr.  by  G.  Rawlinson.  4  vols.  N.  Y.  .  .  .  Tr. 
by  H.  Gary.  (Bohn.)  .  .  .  Analysis  and -Summary  by 
J.  T.  Wheeler.  (Bohn.) 

Homor.  Iliad.  Tr.  by  W.  C.  Bryant.  Bost.  1870.  .  .  .  Tr. 
by  Lang-,  Leaf,  and  Myers.  Lond.  1893. 

Odyssey.  Tr.  by  VV.  C.  Bryant.  Bost.  1872.  .  .  .  Tr. 

by  Butcher  and  Lang.  Lond.  1893. 

Thucydides.  Tr.  by  B.  Jowett.  2  vols.  N.  Y.  .  .  .  Analy- 
sis and  Summary  by  J.  T.  Wheeler.  (Bohn.) 

Xenophon.  Cyropsedia  and  Hellenics.  Tr.  by  J.  S.  Wat- 
son and  H.  Dale.  (Bohn.) 


IV.     THE  ROMAN  WORLD 

(18)  Roman  History,  General. 

Allcroft,  A.  H.,  and  Masom,  W.  F.  History  of  Rome.  5 
vols.  Lond. 

Beesly,  A.  H.  The  Gracchi,  Marius,  and  Sulla.  N.  Y. 
(Epochs.) 

Bury,  J.  B.  History  of  the  Roman  Empire  from  its  Foun- 
dation to  the  Death  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  N.  Y.  1893. 

Capes,  W.  W.     The  Early  Empire.     N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 

-  The  Age  of  the   Antonines.     N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 
Duruy,  V.     History  of  Rome  and  the  Roman  People.      Ed. 

by  J.  P.  Mahaffy.     8  vols.     Bost.  1888. 
Gibbon,  E.     History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 

Empire.     Ed.  by   Milman.     6  vols.     Phil.    .    .    .    Ed.  by 

Bury.    7  vols.    Lond.    Same  abridged  in  one  vol.    N.  Y. 

(Students'  Series.) 
How,  W.  W.,  and  Leigh,  H.  D.     History  of  Rome  to  the 

Death  of  Caesar.     N.  Y.  1896. 
Ihne,  W.     History  of  Rome.     5  vols.     Lond.  1871-82. 

-  Early  Rome.     N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 

Leighton,  R.   F.     History  of  Rome.     N.   Y.   1890. 
Liddell,  H.  G.     History  of  Rome.     N.  Y.  1890.     (Students' 

Series.) 
Matheson,    P.    E.     Skeleton    Outline    of    Roman    History. 

(Chronologically  Arranged.)     Lond.  1890. 
Merivale,  C.     History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire. 

7  vols.     N.  Y.  1866. 
General    History   of   Rome.     N.   Y.    1880.     (Students' 

Series.) 

-  The  Roman   Triumvirates.     N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 
Mommsen,  T.     History  of  Rome.     Tr.  by  W.  P.  Dickson. 

4    vols.     N.    Y.    1871.     Same    abridged    by    Bryans    and 

Hendy.     N.  Y.  1889. 

Pelham,  H.  F.     Outlines  of  Roman  History.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Shuckburgh,    E.    S.     History   of   Rome    to    the   Battle   of 

Actium.     N.  Y.   1894. 
Seeley,  J.  R.     Roman  Imperialism  and  other  Lectures  and 

Essays.     Bost.  1871. 


532  APPENDIX 

Seignobos,  C.     History  of  the  Roman  People.    N.  Y.  1902. 
Smith,  R.  B.     Rome  and  Carthage.    N.  Y.     (Epochs.) 
Smith,  Wm.     Smaller  History  of  Rome.     N.  Y.  1899. 

(19)  Roman  Antiquities.     Life  and  Manners. 

Becker,  W.  A.     Gallus.     Lond.  1866. 

Church,  A.  J.     Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero.     N.  Y. 

1890. 
Dill,  S.     Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Lond.  1905. 

Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western 

Empire.     Lond.  1898. 

Friedlander,  L.     Town  Life  in  Ancient  Italy.     Bost.  1902. 

Guhl,  E.,  and  Koner,  W.  The  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. Lond. 

Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiqui- 
ties. N.  Y.  1897. 

Inge,  W.  R,  Society  of  Rome  under  the  Caesars.  N.  Y. 
1888. 

Pellison,  M.  Roman  Life  of  Pliny's  Times.  Meadville. 
1887. 

Preston,  H.  W.,  and  Dodge,  L.  Private  Life  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Bost.  1894. 

Ramsay,  W.,  and  Lanciani,  R.  Manual  of  Roman  Antiqui- 
ties. Lond.  1894. 

Thomas,  E.    Roman  Life  under  the  Caesars.     N.  Y.  1897. 

Seyffert,  O.  Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquities.  Lond. 
1891. 

Smith,  Wm.  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. 
3d  Edition.  2  vols.  Lond.  1890. 

(20)  Roman  Archaeology  and  Art. 

Boissier,  G.  Rome  and  Pompeii:  Archaeological  Rambles. 
Lond.  1896. 

Roman  Africa.     N.  Y.  1899. 

Burn,  R.  Ancient  Rome  and  its  Neighborhood.  Lond. 
1895. 

Lanciani,  R.  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Dis- 
coveries. Bost.  1891. 

-  Ruins  and  Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome.     Bost.  1897. 
Middleton,    J.    H.     Remains    of    Ancient    Rome.     2    vols. 

Lond.  1892. 
Mau,  A.  Pompeii:  its  Life  and  Art.  Tr.  by  F.  W.  Kelsey. 

N.  Y.  1899. 
Parker,  J.  H.  Architectural  History  of  Rome.  Lond.  1881. 

(21)  Christianity  and  Home. 

Fisher,  G.  P.     Beginnings  of  Christianity.     N.  Y.  1878. 

-  History  of  the  Christian  Church.     N.  Y.  1887. 
Hatch,  E.    Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches. 

Lond.  1881. 


APPENDIX  533 

Carr,  A.     The  Church  and  the  Roman  Empire.     Ldnd.  and 

.\.  Y.  1887. 
Guggenberger,  A.     The  History  of  the  Christian  Era.     3 

vols.     St.  Louis  1900-01. 
Hardy,  E.  G.     Christianity  and  the  Roman  Government. 

Lond.  1894. 

Healy,  l\  J.     The  Valerian  Persecution.     Bost.  1905. 
Hunt,    Wm.     History    of    the    English    Church    from    its 

Foundation  to  the  Norman  Conquest.     N.  Y.  1901. 
Milman,  H.  H.     History  of  Christianity.     N.  Y.  1872. 

—  History  of  Latin   Christianity.     8  vols.  in  4.     N.  Y. 

1881. 
Ramsay,    W.    M.     The    Church   and    the    Roman    Empire. 

N.  Y.   1893. 
Renan,  E.     Influence  of  Rome  upon  Christianity.     N.  Y. 

1884. 

Shahan,  T.  J.  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity.  N.  Y.  1903. 
Stanley,  A.  P.  History  of  the  Eastern  Church.  N.  Y.  1884. 
Uhlhorn,  G.  Conflict  of  Christianity  and  Heathenism. 

N.  Y.  1879. 

(22)  Roman  Constitution  and  Law. 

Abbott,  F.  F.  History  and  Description  of  Roman  Political 
Institutions.  Bost.  1902. 

Arnold,  W.  T.  Roman  System  of  Provincial  Administra- 
tion. Lond.  1879. 

Granrud,  J.  E.    Roman  Constitutional  History.    Bost.  1902. 

Greenidge,  A.  H.  J.     Roman  Public  Life.     Lond.  1901. 

Hadley,  J.     Introduction  to  Roman  Law.     N.  Y. 

Maine,  H.  S.     Ancient  Law.     N.  Y.  1884. 

Morey,  W.  C.     Outlines  of  Roman  Law.     N.  Y. 

Muirhead,  J.  Historical  Introduction  to  the  Private  Law 
of  Rome.  Lond.  1899. 

Ortolan,  E.     History  of  Roman  Legislation.     Lond.  1871. 

Taylor,  T.  M.  Constitutional  and  Political  History  of 
Rome.  Lond.  1899. 

Tighe,  A.  Development  of  the  Roman  Constitution.  N.  Y. 
1886. 

(23)  Roman  Literature. 

Cruttwell,  C.  T.  History  of  Roman  Literature.  N.  Y.  1887. 
Lawton,  W.  C.  Introduction  to  Classical  Latin  Literature. 

N.  Y.   1904. 

Mackail,  J.  W.     Latin  Literature.     Lond.  1896. 
Middleton,  G.,  and  Mills,  T.  R.     Student's  Companion  to 

Latin  Authors.     Lond.  and   N.  Y.   1896. 
Simcox,  G.  A.     History  of  Latin  Literature.     2  vols.     Lond. 

1883. 
Teuffel,  W.  S.     History  of  Roman  Literature.     Ed.  by  G. 

C.  Warr.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1891-92. 
Tyrrell,  R.  Y.     Latin  Poetry.     Bost.  1895. 


534  APPENDIX 

(24)  Mediaeval  Period. 

Adams,  G.  B.    Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages.    N.  Y. 

1894. 
Bemont,  C.,  and  Monod,  G.     Mediaeval  Europe  from  395 

to  1270  A.  D.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Bryce,  J.     Holy  Roman  Empire.     6th  Edition.     Lond.  1899. 
Bury,  J.  B.     History   of  the  Later  Roman   Empire   from 

Arcadius  to  Irene    (395-800  A.  D.).     2  vols.     Lond.  and 

N.  Y.  1889. 
Church,  R.  W.    Beginnings  of  the  Middle  Ages.    N.  Y. 

1877. 
Curteis,  A.  M.     History  of  the  Roman  Empire,  395-800  A.  D. 

Lond.  1875. 

Duruy,  V.     History  of  the  Middle  Ages.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Emerton,   E.     Introduction   to   the   Study  of  the  Middle 

Ages.     Bost.  1888. 

Hodgkin,  T.    Italy  and  her  Invaders.    8  vols.    Oxf.    1880-95. 
Harrison,    F.     Byzantine    History    in    the    Middle    Ages. 

Lond.  1900. 

Kingsley,  C.     The  Roman  and  the  Teuton. 
Mohammed.      The  Qur'an  (Koran).     Tr.  by  E.  H.  Palmer. 

Oxford. 

Oman,  C.  W.  C.     The  Dark  Ages,  476-918  A.  D.     N.  Y. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.    Schools  of  Charles  the  Great.    Lond.  1877. 
Robinson,  J.  H.     Introduction  to  the  History  of  \Vestern 

Europe.       Part  I.   (The  Middle  Ages).     Bost.  1902. 
Sheppard,  J.  G.     Fall  of  Rome  and  Rise  of  Modern  Na- 
tionalities.    Lond.  1861. 
Smith,   R.    B.     Mohammed  and   Mohammedanism.     N.   Y. 

1875. 
Thatcher,  O.  J.,  and  Schwill,   F.     Europe  in   the   Middle 

Ages.     N.  Y.  1896. 

(25)  Sources  of  Roman  History. 

Greenidge,  A.  H.  J.     Sources  for  Roman  History.     Oxford. 

Henderson,  E.  F.  Select  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Lond.  1892. 

Munro,  D.  C.     Source  Book  of  Roman  History.     Bost.  1904. 

Robinson,  J.  H.  Readings  in  European  History.  Vol.  I. 
Bost.  1904. 

Translations  and  Reprints  from  Original  Sources.  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  7  vols.  1892-1900. 

Ammianus   Marcellimis.     Roman    History.     (Bohn.) 

Appian.  Roman  History.  Tr.  by  H.  White.  2  vols.  N.  Y. 
1899. 

Caesar.    Commentaries.     (Harpers.) 

Livy.  History  of  Rome.  2  vols.  (Harpers).  ...  4  vols. 
(Bohn.) 

I'olyl.ius.  Histories.  Tr.  by  E.  S.  Shuckburgh.  2  vols. 
Lond.  1 

Tacitus.     Works.     Oxford  translation.     (Bohn.) 


APPENDIX  535 

Sallust.     Works.     (Harpers.     Bohn.) 

Vergil.     .ISneid.     Tr.  by  C.  1'.  Cranch.     Bost.  1897. 


V.     BIOGRAPHY 

(26)  Biography,  Collected. 

Collins,  W.  L.  (Ed.).  Ancient  Classics  for  English  Read- 
ers. 28  vols.  Edin.  and  Phil.  1879-88. 

Cox,  G.  W.  Lives  of  Greek  Statesmen.  2  vols.  N.  Y. 
1885. 

Oman,  C.  Seven  Roman  Statesmen  of  the  Later  Republic. 
Lond.  1903. 

Plutarch.  Lives.  Tr.  by  J.  Dryden.  3  vols.  N.  Y.  .  .  . 
Ed.  by  A.  H.  dough.  Bost.  1881.  .  .  .  Tr.  by  A. 
Stewart  and  G.  Long.  N.  Y.  1889. 

Smith,  Win.  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
and  Mythology.  3  vols.  Lond.  1880. 

Suetonius.     The  Twelve  Caesars.     (Bohn.) 

(27)  Biography,  Individuals. 

Alexander.     Bv  T.  A.  Dodge.     Bost.  1890. 
--  By  R.  Steele.     Lond.  1894. 

-  By  B.  I.  Wheeler.     N.  Y.  1900. 
Augustus  Cvsar.     By  J.   B.   Firth.     N.  Y.   1903. 

-  By  E.  S.  Shuckburgh.     Lond.  1903. 
Charlf'tnai/ne.     By    Eginhard    (Einhard).     N.   Y. 

-  By  J.  I.  Mombert.     N.  Y.  1888. 

-  By  T.  Hodgkin.     Lond.  1897. 

-  By  H.  W.  C.  Davis.     N.  Y.  1900. 
Constantino.     By  E.  L.  Cutts.     Lond.  1881. 

Cicero.     By  W.  L.  Collins.     Phil.  1871.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

-  By  W.  Forsyth.     2  vols.  in  one.     N.  Y.   1871. 

-  By  A.  Trollope.     N.  Y.  1881. 

By  J.  L.  Strachan-Davidson.     N.  Y.  1894. 

-  By  G.  Boissier.     Lond.  1897. 
Demosthenes.     By  Bredif.     Chicago,  1881. 

-  By  E.  H.  Butcher.     N.  Y.  1882. 
Hannibal.     By  J.  Abbott.     N.  Y.  1849. 

-  By  T.  Arnold.     Bost.  1860. 

-  By  T.  A.  Dodge.     Bost.  1860. 

-  By  W.  O.  Morris.     N.  Y.  1897. 
Julian.     By  J.  A.  W.  Neander.     N.  Y.  1850. 

-  By  A.  Gardner.     N.  Y.  1895. 
Julius  C(esar.    By  J.  Abbott.     N.  Y.  1849. 

-  By  J.  Williams.     Lond.  1854. 

-  By  J.  A.  Froude.     N.  Y.  1880. 

-  By  T.  A.  Dodge.     Bost.  1892. 

-  By  W.  W.  Fowler.     N.  Y.  1892. 

Marcus  Aurelius.     By  P.  B.  Watson.     N.  Y.  1884. 
Moliammed.     By  W.  Irving.     2  vols.       N.  Y.  1868. 


536  APPENDIX 

Mohammed.    By  Sir  W.  Muir.    Lond.  1888. 
Nero.    By  W.   Henderson.     Lond.   1903. 
Pericles.    By  W.  W.  Lloyd.    2  vols.    Lond.  1875. 

—  By  E.  Abbott.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Tiberius.     By  J.  Tarver.     Westminster.  1902. 
Theodoric.    By  T.  Hodgkin.     N.  Y.  1896. 
Zoroaster.    By  A.  V.  N.  Jackson.    N.  Y.  1899. 


VI.     HISTOBICAL  FICTION 

(28)  Oriental. 

Arnold,  E.  L.  L.     Phra  the  Phoenician. 

Ebers,  G.     Daughter  of  an  Egyptian  King.     (6th  century 
B.  c.) 

The  Sisters.     (2d  century  B.  c.) 

Uarda.     (Time  of  Barneses  II.) 

(29)  Greek. 

Church,  A.  J.    Heroes  and  Kings.     (Mythical  age.) 

—  Stories  from  Homer.     (Mythical  age.) 

Stories  from  Herodotus.     (5th  century  B.  c.) 

Callias.     (5th  century  B.  c.) 

Young  Macedonian  in  the  Army  of  Alexander.     (4th 

century  B.  c.) 

Haggard,    H.    R.,    and    Lang,    A.     The    World's    Desire. 

(Trojan  war.) 
Hawthorne,   N.     Tanglewood   Tales.     (Mythical   age.) 

—  Wonder  Book.     (Mythical  age.) 
Kingsley,  C.     The  Heroes.     (Mythical  age.) 

Landon,  R.     Fountain  of  Arethusa.     (5th  century  B.  c.) 
Landon,  W.  S.     Pericles  and  Aspasia.     (5th  century  B.  c.) 
Lamb,  C.     Adventures  of  Ulysses.     (Trojan  war.) 
Leatham,  E.  A.    Charmione.     (5th  century  B.  c.) 

(30)  Roman. 

Bulwer-Lytton.     Last    Days    of    Pompeii.      (1st    century 

A.  D.) 
Church,  A.  J.     The  Hammer.     (2d  century  B.  C.) 

-  The  Burning  of  Rome.     (1st  century  A.  D.) 

-  To  the  Lions.     (2d  century  A.  D.) 

-  The  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore.     (5th  century  A.  D.) 
Krkstein,  E.     Prusias.     (1st  century  B.  c.) 

-  Nero.     (1st  century  A.  D.) 

—  Quintus  Claudius.     (1st  century  A.  D.) 

Farnn-.  K.  \V.     Darkness  and  Dawn.     (1st  century  A.  i>.) 

Kingsley.  C,      Mypatia.     (4th  century  A.  D.) 

Let-.   K.   I',.      Parthenla,     (4th  century  A.  D.) 

I'nirr,  W.     Manns  the   Kpiriiivjin.      (\Nl   century  A.  D.) 

Sicnkicwicx,   II.     "Quo  Yadis?"     (1st  century  A.  D.) 

\\.ill:i<t.   L.     r.cii  Hur.     (1st  century  A.  D.) 


INDEX 


Diacritic  marks  :  €,  ch  as  in  cart,  chasm  ;  N,  the  French  nasal ;  single 
lt;ili<-  letters  :ire  silent.  The  long  and  short  marks  used  with  vowels 
have  their  usual  meaning.  In  all  the  names  in  this  index,  c  and  g  fol- 
lowed by  e,  i.  or  y  have  respectively  the  sounds  of  s  and  j  ;  followed  by  a, 
o  or  u,  however,  c  has  the  sound  of  k,  and  g  is  sounded  as  in  the  word  go. 


Aachen  (ah'khen),  or  Aix-la-Cha- 
pHlo.  Charlemagne's  capital,  521. 

Abbas'sids,  Mohammedan  dynasty. 
506. 

Abder-Rah'man,  caliph,  506. 

A'bram  (A'braham),  Hebrew  patri- 
arch^ 45. 

Academy  at  Athens.  200. 

Acarna'nia,  district  of  Greece,  78. 

Ac'cad,  city  of  Babylonia,  22. 

Acca'dians,  early  people  of  Baby- 
lonia, 21. 

Achaean  League,  240-242. 

AHia'la  (Aclura),  district  of  Greece, 
79  ;  Roman  province,  339. 

Achil'les,  Grecian  hero,  06. 

Acrop'olis  of  Athens,  79,  199;  ad- 
orned by  Pericles,  200. 

Actium    (ak'shl-um),  battle  of,  400. 

Adol'phus  (Ataulf),  Visigothic  king, 
487. 

Adriano'ple.  battle  of,  465. 

plebeian,   290;   curule,  296. 
Islands,  battle  at,  320. 

^Ege'an  Sea,  75;  Athenian  suprem- 
acy in,  161. 

^Egi'na,  island  of  Greece,  79;  con- 
quered by  Athens,  166. 

/E'gospot'ami,  battle  of,   186. 

.Ene'as,  Troian  hero,  266. 

.Eo'lia,  district  of  Greece,  78. 

.Eo'lians.  Hellenic  tribe,  82;  their 
migration  to  Asia  Minor,  95 ; 
their  lyric  poetry.  130. 

.P/quians,  Italic  tribe,  263,  299. 

.Ks'chylus,    Greek    tragic    poet,    207. 

Aetius  (a-e'shi-us),  Roman  general, 
487. 

.Kto'lian  League,  242,  333,  336. 

Africa,  seat  of  the  Carthaginian 
power,  315  ;  Roman  province,  340  ; 
conquered  by  Vandals,  488 ;  by 
Justinian,  499 ;  by  the  Saracens, 
505. 

Agamem'non,  king  of  Mycena?,  84. 
96. 

A'ger  puVlicus,  public  land  at  Rome. 
289. 

Ager  Roma'nus,  Roman  domain,  307, 
369. 


Agesila'us,  king  of  Sparta,  1SO. 
A'gis   III.,  king  of  Sparta,  242. 
Ag'ora,  Athenian  market  place,  199. 
Agrarian  laws,  of  Sp.  Cassius,  290; 

in    the    Licinian    legislation,    296; 

of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  358. 
Agric'ola,   Roman   general.   429. 
Agrigen'tum,  town  in  Sicily,  318. 
Agrip'pa,  adviser  of  Augustus,   414. 
Ah'riman,  Persian  deity,  69. 
Aix-la-ChapelJe',  Charlemagne's  capi- 
tal. 521. 

Al'aric,  king  of  the  Visigoths;  486; 
Al'aric  II.,  492. 

Al'ba  Lon'ga,  city  of  Latium,  266. 
Al'boin,  Lombard  chief,  502. 
Alcae'us,  Greek  lyric  poet,  139. 
Alcibi'ades,  Athenian  statesman  and 

traitor,  183-185. 
Alcraaeon'ida?,  the,  121,  note. 
Alc'man,  Greek  lyrist,  139. 
Al'ciiin,    archbishop    of    York,    519. 
Aleman'ni,   German   tribe,  452,   493. 
Alexan'der  the  Great,  his  accession, 

230 ;   his  conquests,    231-235 ;   his 

character,   235-237. 
Alexan'dria,  founded,  234  ;  center  of 

Hellenistic  culture.  254. 
Al'lia  River,  battle  at.  300. 
Alphabet,  Phoenician,  43. 
Am'brose,  St.,  bishop  of  Milan,  466. 
Amphic'tyonies,   Greek  leagues,    105. 
Amphip'olis,  battle  of,  182. 
Amphitheater,  sports  of  the,  434. 
Amusements    of    the    Romans,    322, 

432. 

Anac'reon,  Greek  lyric  poet,  139. 
Anaxag'oras,  Greek  philosopher,  215. 
Anax}man'der,     Greek     philosopher, 

140. 

Anaxim'ines.  Greek  philosopher,  140. 
An'cus    Mar'cius    (shT-us),    king    of 

Rome.   268. 

Androm'cus,  Roman  poet,  351. 
Anglo-Sax'ons  in  Britain,  404. 
Antal'cidas,  Peace  of,  189,  191. 
Antig'onus,    general    of    Alexander, 

230. 
An'tio«h,     capital     of     Syria,     239 ; 

center  of  Hellenistic  culture,  253. 


537 


538 


INDEX 


Anti'o€hus  I.,  king  of  Syria,  230. 

Antiochus  III.    (the  Great),  335. 

Antiochus   IV.     (Epiphanes),   254. 

Antom'nus  Pi'us,  emperor,  442. 

Anto'nius.  Marcus  (Mark  An'tony). 
friend  of  Csesar,  393  ;  opposed  by 
Octavius,  395;  attacked  by  Cic- 
ero, 39.r> ;  in  second  triumvirate. 
396;  war  with  Octavius,  397-401. 

A pel'la.  Spartan  assembly.  116,  117. 

Apel'les,  Greek  painter,  245. 

Aphrodi'te  (Venus),  100;  statue  of 
Melos,  252. 

Apol'lo,  100;  his  oracle  at  Delphi, 
130;  Belvedere',  252. 

Apollodo'rus,  Greek  painter,  205. 

Ap'pian  Way,  312,  435. 

Ap'pius  Ciau'dius,  the  decemvir, 
292  ;  the  censor,  305,  312. 

Apu'lians,  people  of  Italy,  join  Han- 
nibal, 327. 

A'quse  Sex'tiae,  battle  of,  366. 

Aqueduct,  Claudian,  424,  425. 

Arabs,    505-507. 

Ara'tus,  general  of  the  Achaean 
League,  240,  242. 

Arau'sio  (-shl-o),  battle  of,  365. 

Arbe'la,  battle  of,  234. 

Arca'dia,  district  of  Greece,  79. 

Arca'dius,  emperor,  466,  486. 

Ar€hil'o€hus,  Greek  elegiac  poet, 
138. 

Arehime'des,  Greek  mathematician, 
256. 

Architecture,  Egyptian,  35;  As- 
syrian, 56 ;  early  Greek,  135  ;  of 
the  Attic  period,  200-202 ;  at 
Pergamum,  248 ;  at  Alexandria. 
255 ;  Etruscan,  266 ;  Roman,  un- 
der the  kingdom,  282;  under  the 
republic,  404 ;  under  Augustus, 
414 ;  under  the  Antonines,  447 : 
early  Christian.  477. 

Ar'€hons  at  Athens,  121,  123. 

Areop'agus,  Council  of  the,  121,  172. 

A'res    (Mars),   100,   277. 

Arginu'ss?,  battle  of,   186. 

Ar'golis,  district  of  Greece,  79,  114. 

Argonau'tic  expedition,  86. 

Ar'gos,  city  of  Argolis,  82,  114,  118. 

A'rianism,  condemned  as  a  heresy, 
461,  note. 

Arl'on.  Greek  lyric  poet,  139. 

Ariovis'tus,   German    chief,    385. 

Aristar'chus,  Alexandrian  critic, 
256. 

Arlstl'des,  Greek  statesman,  his 
policy,  149;  ostracized,  150;  at 
Salamis,  155;  at  Platsea,  156; 
forms  the  Delian  confederacy,  162. 

Aristocracy,  early  Greek,  106 ;  at 
Sparta.  115;  at  Athens,  121.  See 
also  Nobility. 

Arlstogl'ton,  Athenian  tyrannicide. 
I2f. 

Aristoph'anes,    Greek    comic    writer, 

no. 

AVlstOtle,  Greek   philosopher,   218. 


Annin'ius,   German  chief,  413. 

Army,  Egyptian,  32 ;  Persian,  68 ; 
Spartan,  118;  Athenian,  17.1; 
Theban,  192 ;  Macedonian,  227 ; 
Roman,  under  the  kingdom,  281  ; 
under  the  republic,  310 ;  under 
Augustus,  410 ;  under  Constan- 
tine,  461.  See  also  Praetorian 
Guard.  • 

Art.  Babylonian,  23 ;  Egyptian.  :;:>. 
36 ;  Assyrian,  56,  57  ;  Mycenavm. 
88-91  ;  early  Hellenic.  134-137 : 
the  Attic  period,  197-205  ;  Hellen- 
istic period,  248  et  seq.;  Roman. 
351.  See  also  Architecture,  Paint- 
ing, Sculpture. 

Artapher'nes,    Persian   general,    146. 

Ar'temis  (Diana),  100. 

Artemis'ium  (-mish'-)  battle  of, 
154. 

Ar'yan  people,  16 ;  in  India,  61 ;  in 
Media  and  Persia,  62  ;  in  Greece, 
81  ;  in  Italy.  263. 

As'culum,  battle  of,  305. 

Asia.  Roman  province,  343. 

Asia  Minor,  early  Greek  settlements 
in,  81 ;  migrations  to,  93  ;  seat  of 
early  culture,  95 ;  cities  con- 
quered by  Lydia  and  Persia,  144  ; 
freed  by  Athens,  165 ;  conquered 
by  Alexander,  231  ;  new  kingdoms 
in,  239 ;  conquered  by  Pompey, 
379.  See  also  Pergamum,  Rhodes. 

Assembly,  Greek,  in  Homeric  age, 
98 ;  in  early  city  state,  104 ;  at 
Sparta  (apella),  116;  at  Athens 
(eocletia),  under  Solon,  123;  un- 
der Clisthenes,  126 ;  under  Peri- 
cles, 173. 

Assembly,   Roman.     See  Comitia. 

As'sur,  city  of  Mesopotamia,  21. 

As'sur-ba'ni-pal.    Assyrian   king,    54. 

As'sur-na'zir-pal,  Assyrian  king,  52. 

Assyr'ia,  21  ;  its  civilization,  51-58 ; 
conquered  by  the  Medes  and  Baby- 
lonians, 58  ;  conquered  by  Trajan, 

Athe'na    (Minerva),  100. 

Ath'ens,  city  of  Attica,  its  mythical 
founder,  Cecrops,  84 ;  its  early 
history,  121-127 ;  in  the  Ionian 
revolt,  145 :  in  the  first  Persian 
invasion,  145-148;  democratic 
progress  at,  148;  becomes  n  mari- 
time power,  150;  destroyed  by 
Xerxes,  154 ;  rebuilt  by  Themis- 
tocles,  160 ;  becomes  supreme  in 
the  /Egean,  161  ;  head  of  tin* 
Delian  confederacy,  162:  of  the 
Athenian  empire,  164-171  ;  con- 
stitution under  Pericles.  172-1 77: 
in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  l  .  ^ 
187;  new  confederacy  of,  T.'l  : 
center  of  Hellenic  art,  197  et  scq. 

A'thos,  Mt.,  145,  152. 

"A'tn-ns.  Treasury  of,"  90. 

At'talus  I.,  king  of  Pergamum,  240. 

Attains   in..  :;»:;. 


INDEX 


539 


At'tica,     district     of     Greece,     70; 

early  divisions  of  the  people,  ll'O  ; 

local    tribes    of    Clisthenes.    126 ; 

population   under   Pericles.   172. 
At 'Mia.   king  of  the  Huns.  487. 
Augustine,    missionary    to    Britain, 

404. 
Augustine,     St.,     bishop     of    Hippo, 

478. 
Augus'tus  Caesar,   emperor,   407-417. 

N<  c  also  Octavius. 
Aure'lian,  emperor,  453. 
Aure'lius,  Marcus,  emperor,  443. 

Bab'ylon,  city  of  Babylonia,  21  ;  be- 
comes the  capital,  23 ;  destroyed 
by  Assyria,  54  ;  restored  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, 58  ;  captured  by  Al- 
exander, 235. 

Babylo'nia,  early  empire,  19-27 ; 
later  empire,  58-90. 

Bagdad,  Abbassid  capital,  507. 

Basil'ica,  Roman  court-house,  used 
as  model  for  Christian  churches, 
477. 

Baths,  Roman,  432. 

Belisa'rius,  general  of  Justinian, 
501. 

Beller'ophon,  Greek  hero,  85. 

Be'ma,  platform  on  the  Pnyx,  174. 

Ben'edict,  St.,  rule  of,  510. 

Bithyn'ia,  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor, 
240. 

Bffio'tia  (be-o'shl-a),  district  of 
Greece,  78  ;  confederacy  of,  191. 

Boe'thius,  Latin  writer,  491. 

Bon'iface,  St.,  missionary,  511,  512. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  Egyptian,  38. 

Bou'l£,  Greek  council  or  senate,  in 
Homeric  age,  98 ;  in  early  city 
state,  104;  in  time  of  Pericles. 
174.  See  also  Council,  Athenian. 

Bovia'num,  town  in  Samnixim,  302. 

Brah'manism,   Hindu  religion,   61. 

Bras'idas,  Spartan  general,  182. 

Brit'ain,  invaded  by  Julius  Caesar, 
386 ;  Roman  province.  424,  429 ; 
settled  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  494. 

Bru'tus,  Dec'imus,  one  of  the  "lib- 
erators," 395,  396. 

Brutus,  Ju'nius  (the  Elder),  268, 
269. 

Brutus,  Marcus,  conspirator,  391  ; 
assigned  to  Macedonia,  395 ;  at 
the  battle  of  Philippi,  397. 

Buddhism,  Hindu  religion,  62. 

Burgun'dians,  kingdom  of,  493. 

Bur'rhus,    adviser  of   Nero,   422. 

Byzan'tium  (-shi-um),  capital  of  the 
Eastern  Roman  empire,  463. 

C.,  abbreviation  of  Gaius,  295. 

Cadme'a,  citadel  of  Thebes,  190. 

Cad'mus,  the  mythical  founder  of 
Thebes,  84. 

Cffi'sar,  Gaius  Julius,  Roman  general 
and  statesman,  his  appearance  in 
politics,  380,  381;  in  first  trium- 


virate, 382  ;  hlH  consulship,  383  ; 
conquest  of  Gaul,  385 ;  breaks 
with  the  senate,  387 ;  war  with 
Pompey,  388 ;  his  triumphs  and 
titles,  389;  his  legislation,  :'•'.'". 
his  assassination,  391  ;  his  "Com- 
mentaries," 403. 

"Caesars,"  office  of,  456. 

Calig'ula    (Gaius    Caesar),    emperor, 

Ca'liphs,   successors   of    Mohammed, 

505. 

Calli'nus,  Greek  elegiac  poet,   138. 
Camby'ses,  Persian  king,  65. 
Camil'lus,  dictator,  300. 
Campa'nia,  in  Samnite  wars,  301. 
Cam'pus  Mar'tius    (-shl-us),  281. 
Can'nae.  battle  of,  326. 
Canu-le'ian  law,   293. 
Cap'itoline  hill,  272,  274. 
Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  520. 
Cappado'cia,  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor, 

240. 
Cap'ua,   city  of  Campania,    receives 

Hannibal,  327 ;  retaken  by  Rome, 

328. 

Caracal'la,  emperor,  edict  of,  451. 
Car'bo,  Cn.  Paplr'ius,  consul,  372. 
Carolin'gians  (or  Carlovingians), 

Frankish  dynasty,  314. 
Car'thage,  Phoenician  colony,  43  ;  in 

the    Persian    wars,    157 ;    conflict 

with  Syracuse,  194  ;  in  first  Punic 

war,    315-321  ;    in    second    Punic 

war,      323-331  ;      reduced      to      a . 

Roman  province,  339. 
Ca'rus,  Roman  emperor,  453. 
Caryat'ides  in  the  Erechtheum,  202. 
Cassan'der  of  Macedonia,  239. 
Cassiodo'rus,  secretary  of  Theodoric, 

492. 

Cassius      (kash'i-us),      Gaius,      con- 
spirator,  391  ;   assigned  to   Syria, 

395 ;    at    the    battle    of    Philippi, 

397. 
Cassius,  Sp.,  his  agrarian  proposals, 

290. 

Cat'iline,  conspiracy  of,  381. 
Ca'to  (the  Elder),  censor,  339,  350. 
Cato    (the   Younger),    leader  of   the 

senatorial  party,  383  ;  mission  to 

Cyprus   and   return,    384  ;    at    the 

battle  of  Thapsus,   389. 
Catul'lus,  Roman  poet,  404. 
Cat'ulus,     C.      Luta'tius      (-shl-us), 

consul,  320. 

Cau'dine   Forks,    battle   of,    392. 
Ce'crops,       mythical       founder      of 

Athens,  84. 
Celtibe'rians,  Spanish  tribe,  reduced 

by  Rome,  341. 

Celtic  church  in  Britain,  495. 
Censors,  Roman,  295. 
Census  classes  at  Athens,  123. 
Centuries,  in  Roman  army,  280;  in 

assembly,   281. 
€hseronS'a,    battle    of    (338    B.  c.), 

229. 


540 


INDEX 


€halce'don,  Greek  city  in  Asia 
Minor,  186,  18S. 

€halcld'ice,  seat  of  Greek  colonies, 
invaded  by  Brasidas,  183;  con- 
federacy of,  11)0;  reduced  by 
Philip/228. 

€hal'cis,  city  of  Euboea,  79 ;  as  a 
colonizing  center,  109. 

Chalda^'an  empire,  22  note. 

Chalons   (shah-lo.\'),  battle  of,  487. 

rhampol'lion  (sham-),  French 
scholar,  37. 

Charlemagne  (shar'le-man),  Charles 
the  Great,  514-523. 

Charles  Martel',  at  the  battle  of 
Tours.  506 ;  mayor  of  the  palace, 
appealed  to  by  the  Pope.  512. 

€he'ops.  30. 

€hi'os,  island  of  the  ;Egean,  occu- 
pied by  the  Dorians,  95 ;  ally  of 
Athens,  167. 

CM'ton,  Greek  dress,  221. 

Christianity,  adopted  by  Constan- 
tine,  459  ;  opposed  by  Julian,  464  ; 
restored  by  Jovian,  465 ;  its 
spread  throughout  the  empire, 
475,  476. 

Christians  persecuted  by  Nero,  425  : 
by  Domitian,  428;  by  Marcus 
Aurelius,  443 ;  last  persecution 
under  Diocletian,  457. 

rhrys'ostom,  church  father,  478. 

Church,  growth  of  its  organiza- 
tion, 476;  its  culture,  476-4 7s  ; 
influence  during  the  migrations, 
496 ;  schism  between  the  East  and 
West,  50a. 

Cic'ero,  M.  Tullius,  Roman  orator 
~"  and  statesman,  supports  the  Ma- 
nilian  law,  379;  suppresses  the 
Catilinian  conspiracy,  381  ;  ban- 
ished from  Rome  and  recalled, 
384  ;  attacks  Antony  in  the  "Phi- 
lippics." :j'.i.-i ;  his  death,  397;  his 
writings,  404. 

Cim'bric  war,  365. 

Ci'mon,  Greek  statesman,  associated 
with  Aristides,  161  ;  his  imperial 
policy.  !<;:,;  his  ostracism,  164; 
restoration  and  death,  167. 

Clncinna'tus,  legend  of,  300,  note. 

Cin'na,  L.  Cornelius,  consul,  his 
despotic  rule,  370,  371. 

Cir'cus  Max'imus,  282,  433. 

Cisal'pine  Gaul,  266;  conquered  by 
Rome,  322. 

Citizenship,  at  Athens,  173 ;  rights 
at  Rome,  284 ;  extended  to  the 
Italians,  367,  368;  extension  by 
Cepsar,  390;  by  Claudius,  424;  by 
Caracalla,  451  ;  summary,  473. 

City  state,  Babylonian,  22;  early 
creek,  102-105;  early  Roman, 

Clvl'lis.  governor  of  Gaul.  427. 

Civilization,  first  centers  of,  !'.»: 
beginnings  «,t  Aryan,  01  ;  review 
of  Oriental,  72 ;  Mycenaean,  91 ; 


general  character  of  Hellenic, 
129;  Greek  in  the  Attic  period. 
197,  198;  nature  of  Hellenistic. 
247 ;  influence  of  Greek  upon 
Roman,  349 ;  progress  during 
civil  wars,  402  ;  in  Augustan  age, 
413  et  seq.;  culmination  under 
the  Antonines.  444  et  seq.; 
Mohammedan,  507 :  influence  of 
Charlemagne  upon,  519.  See  also 
Art.  Education.  Government,  In- 
dustry, Laws.  Literature,  Philos- 
ophy, Religion. 

Classes  of  society,  in  Egypt,  31  ;  in 
Sparta,  115,  116;  in  Attica,  120; 
in  Athens  under  Pericles,  172;  in 
Rome  under  the  kingdom,  L'i'.t; 
under  the  republic,  354,  355 ; 
under  the  empire,  429,  430. 

riau'dius,  emperor,  421. 

Claudius  II.,  emperor,  453. 

Claudius,  Ap'pius,  the  decemvir, 
292  ;  the  censor,  305,  312.  - 

Claudius,  Publius.  consul.  320. 

Claudius  Nero,  consul,  329. 

Cleom'enes  III.,  king  of  Sparta,  242. 

Cleom'enic  war,  242. 

Cle'on,  Athenian  demagogue,  181, 
182. 

Cleopa'tra,  queen  of  Egypt,  sup- 
ported by  Ca?sar,  388 ;  relations 
with  Antony,  399;  at  the  battle 
of  Actium,  400. 

Cle'ruchies,  Athenian  colonies,  109 
note. 

Clients  at  Rome,  279. 

Clis'then5s,  Athenian  statesman, 
126. 

Cli'tus,  his  murder  by  Alexander, 
235. 

Clo-a'ca  Max'ima,  283. 

Clo'dius,  P.,  Roman  tribune  and 
agent  of  Csesar,  384  ;  his  death, 
387. 

Clo'vis  (Clodwig,  Clodovech),  king 
of  the  Franks,  493. 

Clubs  at  Athens,  223. 

Cni'dus,  battle  near,  189. 

Col'ehis  on  the  Euxine,  86. 

Colise'um    (Colosseum),  427,  434. 

Collatl'nus,  colleague  of  the  elder 
Brutus,  268. 

Colo'ni.  Roman,  452,  480. 

Colonies,  Phoenician,  43  ;  Greek,  107- 
112;  Latin,  309;  Roman,  308. 

Colosse'um  (Coliseum),  Flavian  am- 
phitheater, 427.  i:;i 

Colum'ban,  St.,  missionary,  511. 

Comedy,  210,  211. 

Comitn'tus,  German  custom,  483, 
106. 

Comitia  (ko-raTsh'i-a)  Centttrto'ta, 
Its  origin.  'J77  ;  its  importance  in 
the  early  republic.  L'sT. 

Comitia  Curiu'tn.  under  .lie  Roman 
kings.  liTT  :  its  decline  in  the  re- 
public. :>7.  ::i;  I. 

Comitia  JTifta'ta,  rise  of,  290. 


INDEX 


541 


Commerce,  Phoenician,  42;  Greek, 
108;  Roman,  4  :•.:•. 

Commer'ciuin,   LM>4,   408,  473. 

Conci'lium  pic' bis,  rise  of,  290  and 
note. 

Congress  of  Corinth,  first,  150 ;  sec- 
ond, 229. 

Co'non,  Athenian  admiral,  189. 

Consl'lium  prin'cipis,  4  l.">. 

Con'stantine,  emperor,  458-404. 

Constantino'ple,  founded,  462. 

Constan'tius  (-shi-us),  colleague  of 
Constantine,  4.">T. 

Consular  tribunes  (military  tribunes 
with  consular  power),  204. 

Consuls,  first  appointed,  286. 

Conu'bium,  294,  408,  473. 

Corcy'ra,  island  of  the  Ionian  Sea, 
embroiled  with  Corinth,  176 ; 
sedition  at,  182. 

Cor'dova,  caliphate  of.  507. 

Corfln'ium,  capital  of  "Italica,"  367. 

Cor'inth,  conquered  by  the  Dorians, 
114  ;  commercial  rival  of  Athens, 
179  ;  Congress  of,  under  Themisto- 
cles,  150;  under  Philip,  229;  de- 
stroyed by  Rome,  338. 

Corin'thian  style  of  architecture, 
135. 

Corinthian  war,   189. 

Coriolfi'nus,   legend  of,   300,   note. 

Corn  law  of  Gaius  Gracchus.  361. 

Corone'a,   battle  of,   171. 

Cor' pus  Ju'ris  civi'lis,  502. 

Cor'sica,  reduced  by  Rome,  321. 

Council,  Athenian,  of  the  Areopagus. 
121,  126  note.  172  :  of  four  hundred 
and  one,  122;  of  four  hundred, 
124;  of  five  hundred,  ,126,  174. 

Court  organization  under  Constan- 
tine,  463. 

Cras'sus,  M.,  consul,  in  gladiatorial 
war,  377 ;  in  first  triumvirate, 
382 ;  his  governorship  of  Syria 
and  death,  386. 

Crete,  island  of  the  Mediterranean, 
80  ;  prehistoric  remains  in,  91.  . 

Crit'ias,  Athenian  oligarch,  187. 

Croe'sus,  king  of  Lydia,  64,  144. 

Culture.     See  Civilization. 

Cunax'a,  battle  at,  188. 

Cune'iform   writing,   25. 

Cu'ria,  collection  of  .Roman  gentes, 
276  ;  municipal  council,  446,  471. 

Curia'les,  municipal  aristocracy  re- 
sponsible for  taxes,  479. 

Cu'rule  offices,  297,  345. 

Cyax'ares,   Median  king,  62. 

Cy'lon,  conspiracy  of,  121,  note. 

Cynosceph'alae,  battle  of,  335. 

Cy'rus  the  Great,  Persian  king,  64, 
68,  188. 

Cyrus    the    Younger,    Persian    gov- 
ernor of  Asia  Minor,  188. 
« 

Da'cia  (-shi-a),  Roman  province, 
441. 

Dag'obert,  Prankish  king,  512. 

MOREY'S   ANCIENT    HIST. 31 


Dan'a-us,  mythical  founder  of  Argos, 
84. 

Dari'us,  Persian  king,  his  conquests, 
65 ;  political  organization  of  his 
empire.  <>7 ;  invasion  of  Greece, 
145-1  IS.  v>_ 

Da'tia,  Persian  general.  146.  - 

Da'vid,  Hebrew  king.  46. 

Debt,  early  law  at  Rome,  288.  289. 

Dec'archies,  established  by  Sparta, 
187. 

Decele'a,  town  in  Attica,  held. by  the 
Spartans,  184,  186. 

Decem'virs,  at  Rome,  291-293. 

De'cius  (-shi-us)  Mus,  consul  (fa- 
ther), 301  ;  (son),  303. 

Dclato'res,  Roman  informers,  Insti- 
tuted by  Tiberius,  423  ;  abolished 
by  Nerva,  437. 

De'Iium,  battle  of,   182. 

De'los,  island  of  the  ^Egean,  and 
seat  of  the  shrine  of  Apollo,  79 ; 
confederacy  of,  162. 

Del'phi,  city  of  Phocis,  seat  of  the 
oracle  of  Apollo,  78.  130;  In  the 
second  "Sacred  war,"  228. 

Dcme,  Attic  township,  126. 

Deme'ter    (Ceres),   100. 

Democracy  at  Athens,  127,  172. 

Demos'thenes,  Athenian  general,  182, 
184,  185. 

Demosthenes,  Athenian  orator  and 
statesman,  214 ;  opposes  Philip, 
228  ;  his  death,  240. 

Diad'oehi,  successors  of  Alexander, 
237. 

Dicas'teries,  in  Athenian  courts, 
175. 

Dictatorship,  at  Rome,  established, 
286  ;  of  Sulla,  371-374. 

Diocle'tian  (-shan),  emperor,  456- 
458. 

Dionys'ia,  Greek  festival,  133. 

Dionys'ius  (-nish'-)  the  Elder,  of 
Syracuse,  194. 

Dionysius,  the  Younger,   195. 

Diony'sus  (Bacchus),  worship  of, 
140  ;  theater  at  Athens,  205,  206. 

Domitian  (do-mlsh'I-an),  emperor, 
428. 

"Donation  of  Pepin,"  514. 

Do'rians,  82 ;  their  migration  into 
the  Peloponnesus,  93 ;  their  mi- 
grations to  Asia  Minor,  95 ;  their 
lyric  poetry,  139. 

Dor'ic  style  of  architecture,  135. 

Dorp'feld,  German  archaeologist,  89. 

Dra'co,  Athenian  lawgiver,  121. 

Drama,  Greek,   207-211. 

Drep'anum  (Drepana),  battle  near, 
320. 

Dress,  Grecian,  221;  Roman,  432. 

Dru'sus,  M.  Liv'ius,  Roman  tribune 
(father),  opposes  C.  Gracchus, 
362;  (son)  espouses  the  Italian 
cause,  367. 

Duil'ius,  consul,  at  the  battle  of 
Myla;,  319. 


542 


INDEX 


'riri,  municipal  officers,  446. 
Dyrra'chium,  battle  of,  388. 

ticclc' aia,  Athenian  assembly,  under 
Solon,  123 ;  under  riisthenes, 
126;  under  Pericles,  173. 

Ec'nomus,  battle  of,  310. 

Edic'tum  Perp&tuum  of  Salvius  Ju- 
lianus,  440. 

Education,  Spartan,  117;  Athenian, 
222 ;  Roman,  405. 

E'gypU  early  center  of  civilization, 
19  ;  periods  of  its  history,  29-31  ; 
its  civilization,  31-38 ;  under  the 
Ptolemies;  239;  Hellenistic  cul- 
ture in,  254 ;  relation  to  Rome, 
333  ;  made  a  province,  401. 

Elagab'alus,  emperor,  451. 

E'lamltes,  their  conquest  of  Baby- 
lonia, 22 ;  expelled  by  Hammurabi, 
23. 

Ele'giac  poetry,  Greek,  138. 

Eleusin'ia,  Greek  festival,  133. 

Eleuthe'ria,  Greek  festival,  157. 

Elis,  district  of  Greece,  79 ;  member 
of  the  ^Etolian  league,  240. 

En'nius,  Roman  poet,  351. 

Epaminon'das,  Theban  patriot,  191  ; 
at  battle  of  Leuctra,  192;  in- 
vades the  Peloponnesus,  193  ;  his 
death,  193. 

Eph'esus,  city  of  Ionia,  95. 

Ephial'tes,  Athenian  statesman,  164. 

Ephialtes,  the  "Judas  of  Greece," 
153. 

Eph'ors,  Spartan  magistrates,  117. 

Epic  poetry,  Greek,  138. 

Epicureanism  at  Rome,  350,  448. 

Epicu'rus,  Greek  philosopher,  246. 

Epip'olae,  heights  of,  184. 

Eq'ui-tSa,  Roman,  under  Servius  Tul- 
llus,  280 ;  an  aristocratic  order, 
355  ;  privileges  granted  by  Gaius 
Gracchus.  361 ;  status  under  the 
empire,  429. 

Erastos'thenes,  Greek  astronomer, 
256. 

Erechthe'um,  temple  on  the  Acrop- 
olis, 202. 

Ere^h'theiis,  mythical  king  of  Ath- 
ens, 202. 

Ere'tria,  city  of  Eubo?a,  79  ;  a  colo- 
nizing center,  109 ;  aids  in  the 
Ionian  revolt,  145 ;  destroyed  by 
the  Persians,  1-iu. 

Esarhad'don,  Assyrian  king,  54. 

Etrus'cans,  people  of  Italy,  265 ; 
early  influence  at  Rome,  278 ;  in 
the  second  Samnite  war,  302;  in 
the  third  Samnite  war,  303. 

Eubcc'a,  island  of  Greece,  79 ;  Its 
strategic  importance,  1 -",:;. 

Eu'clid,  Greek  geometer,  256. 

Eu'menf'H  I  ,  kin«  of  Pergamum, 
240. 

Eumenes  III.,  249. 

Eu'patrlds,  Athenian  nobles,  120, 
121. 


Euphrates,    river    of    Mesopotamia, 

Eurip'ides,  Greek  tragedian,  210. 
Eurym'edon,    battle    at    the    river, 

163. 
Euse'bius,     ecclesiastical      historian 

and    biographer    of    Constantino, 

459. 
Exar'chate    of    Ravenna,    503,    504, 

514. 

Fa'bius    Max'imus    Cuncta'tor,    dic- 
tator, 326,  328. 
Fabius  Maximus   Rullia'nus,  consul, 

302. 

Fabius  Pictor,  Roman  historian,  351. 
Family,  Greek,  98,  103;  Roman,  L'7r>. 
Fas'ces,  symbol  of  authority,  2J9, 

286. 

Festivals,  Greek,  133. 
Fetia'h's,  Roman  priests,   278. 
Finances,    Athenian,    176 ;    Roman, 

under  Augustus,  412. 
Five  Years'  Truce  of  Cimon,  167. 
Flamim'nus,    T.    Quinc'tius,    consul, 

334    335 

Fo'rum,  Roman,  274,  415,  447. 
Four   Hundred,   Athenian   oligarchy, 

185. 

Franchise.     See  citizenship. 
Franks,  German  tribe,  452 ;  kingdom 

of,  493. 

Gabin'ian  law,  379. 

Ga'ius,  Roman  jurist,  475. 

Gala'tia   in   Asia   Minor,   settled  by 

the  Gauls,  248. 
Gal'ba,  emperor,  426. 
Gale'rius,    Associate    of    Diocletian, 

457. 

Gall,   St.,   missionary,   511. 
Games,    Greek,    131 ;    Roman,    433, 

434. 

Gaugame'la,  battle  of,  234. 
Gaul,  conquest  by  Ca?sar,  385  ;  bar- 
barian kingdoms  in,  491-493. 
Gauls,  in  Italy,  L'66  :  their  invasion 

of  Greece   and  Asia   Minor,   247 ; 

their  destruction  of  Rome,  300. 
Ga'za,  captured  by  Alexander,  233. 
Ge'lo,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  158. 
Gens  (or  clan),  Greek,  103;  Roman, 

276. 
Gen'seric    (Gai'seric),    king    of    the 

Vandals,  488. 

German'icus,  Roman  general,  420. 
Germans,  their  characteristics,  482 ; 

conversion  of,  485  ;  new  kingdoms 

within    the    Roman    empire,    489- 

495 ;     Romano-Germanic     society, 

495-497. 
Germany,      invaded     by      Augustus, 

413. 

(}•  mii'xia.  Spartan  senate,  116. 
Glad'iators,  their  shmvs.   :'.r.L' :  their 

Insurrection  under  Spartacus.  .".77. 
Glau'cia      (-shi-a),     popular     leader 

with  Marius.  :;<;i;,   :;«;7. 


INDKX 


543 


Gor'dlum,  city  of  Phrygla,  occu- 
pied by  Alexander,  L'Ml. 

Goths,  German  tribe,  first  encroach- 
ment upon  Rome,  452 :  revolt 
under  emperor  Valens,  465.  See 
also  Ostrogoths.  Visigoths. 

Government,  Babylonian.  24  ;  Egyp- 
ti.in.  31:  Hebrew,  47;  Assyrian, 
.55;  Persian.  68;  Homeric.  «.»s  : 
of  the  Greek  city  state,  104  ;  at 
Sparta,  116;  at  Athens  to  Clis- 
thenes,  120-127 ;  under  Pericles, 
172-176  ;  Roman,  under  the  kings. 
276;  in  the  early  republic,  286- 
288 ;  after  the  conquest  of  Italy. 
306-309;  after  the  Mediterranean 
conquests,  344-346 ;  under  Sulla. 
373,  374 ;  under  Julius  Caesar, 
390-391  ;  under  Augustus,  407- 
413 ;  under  the  Julian  emperors. 
423,  424 ;  under  the  Antonines, 
444,  445;  under  Diocletian,  158 
457  ;  under  Constantine,  461-464  ; 
review  of  the  Roman  system,  470- 
472 ;  elements  of  its  weakness, 
478-480;  German,  483-485;  Ro- 
mano-Germanic, 496  ;  under  Char- 
lemagne, 519,  520.  See  also 
Assembly,  Boulc,  Citizenship, 
C  omit  la,  Council,  Kingship,  Sen- 
ate, Taxes. 

Grac'chus,  Gaius,  360-362. 

Gracchus,   Tiberius,    358-360. 

Graffiti  (grahf-fee'te),  at  Pompeii, 
434. 

Grani'cus,  battle  of  the,  231. 

Greece,  its  geography,  75-80 ;  its 
people,  80-83 ;  its  early  legends, 
83-86 ;  its  early  civilization,  91, 
92 ;  its  early  political  develop- 
ment, 105-107;  its  expansion  by 
colonization,  107-113 ;  its  wars 
with  Persia,  143-158.  See  also 
Athens,  Sparta,  Thebes. 

Greek    influence   at   Rome,    349. 

Greg'ory  I.  (the  Great),  Pope, 
509,  511. 

Gregory  II.,  Pope,  509. 

Gregory  III.,  Pope,  511. 

Gylip'pus,  Spartan  general,  at  Syra- 
cuse, 184. 

Gymnastics  as  a  part  of  Athenian 
education,  222. 

Ha'drian,  emperor,  441. 

Ha'lys,  river  in  Asia  Minor,  63,  64. 

Hamil'car  Bar'ca,  Carthaginian  sol- 
dier, 320,  323. 

Hamit'ic   people,    15 :    in   Egypt,   29. 

Hammura'bi,  king  of  Babylonia,  22, 
23. 

Han'nibal,  Carthaginian  soldier,  in 
second  Punic  war,  323-331  ;  his 
alliance  with  Philip  V.,  243,  333  ; 
his  aid  to  Antiochus  III.,  and 
death,  336. 

Hfymo'dius,  Athenian  tyrannicide, 
125. 


Har'mosts  of  Sparta,  187. 

Harua' pices,  soothsayers,  introduced 

into   Rome   from    Btmria,    -7!>. 
Has'drubal.  brother  of  Hannibal,   in 

Spain,     324  :     at    battle    of    the 

Met  a  urns,  328. 
Hebrews,  44-49. 

Hel'ena,  mother  of  Constantine,  451). 
Hclim'a,    popular    court    at    Athens, 

123. 
Hel'las,  the  land  of  the  Greeks,  75- 

80. 
Helle'nes,  the  people  of  Greece,  80- 

83. 
Ilel'lenism,    its    influence   at    Rome, 

349. 
Hellenis'tlc     culture,     Its     meaning, 

247. 

Hellespont,  crossed  by  Xerxes,  152. 
He'lots,   at   Sparta,    116;   revolt  of, 

164. 

Helve'tii   (-shl-l),  conquered  by  Cae- 
sar, 385. 

Hephaes'tus    (Vulcan),    100. 
He'ra    (Juno),  100. 
Heracle'a,  battle  of,  304. 
Her'acles  (Hercules),  85. 
Heracli'dae,  return  of  the,  93. 
Heracli'tus,   Greek  philosopher,  140. 
Heracli'us,  Eastern  emperor,  504. 
Hercula'neum,    destroyed,   428. 
Her'mes   (Mercury),  100. 
Herod'otus,  Greek  historian,  15,  21, 

212. 

Her'uli,  kingdom  of  the,  489. 
He'siod,  Greek  poet,  138. 
Hes'tia    (Vestia),   100. 
Hieroglyph'ics,   Egyptian,   37. 
Hills,  of  Athens,  199  ;  of  Rome,  271. 
Hima'tion,  Greek  dress,  221. 
Him'era,  battle  of,  158. 
Hin'dus  in  India,  61. 
Hippar'ehus,  Athenian  tyrant,  125. 
Ilipparchus,  Greek  astronomer,  256. 
Hip'pias,      tyrant      banished      from 

Athens,  125,  146. 
Hissar'lik,  site  of  Troy,  88. 
Hit'tites,     their    kingdom     in     Asia 

Minor,  73. 

Homer'ic  poems,  86,  96-100. 
Hono'rius,  emperor,  466. 
Hor'ace,  Roman  poet,  416. 
Hora'tius    (-shi-us)    Co'cles,    legend 

of,  269. 

House,  Athenian,  220 ;  Roman,  430. 
Huns,     barbarian     tribe,     encroach- 
ment upon  Europe,  465  ;  invasion 

under  Attila,  487. 
Hydas'pes.  battle  of  the,  235. 
Hyk'sos,    shepherd   kings    of    Egypt, 

'30.    31. 
Hymet'tus,   mountain   in  Attica,   79. 

Iconoclastic  controversy,  509. 

Il'iad,   the.  9(5. 

Illyr'ian  pirates,    reduced  by   Rome, 

322. 
Illyr'icum,  Roman  province,  338. 


544 


IJS'DEX 


Impera'tor,  title  of,  389,  408. 

ImpS'rium,  its  growth,  472. 

Incorporation  as  a  principle  of 
Roman  policy,  274,  283,  306,  357. 

India,  13  ;  early  seat  of  Aryan  civi- 
lization, 61 ;  invaded  by  Alexan- 
der, 235. 

Indo-Europeani     See    Aryan. 

Industry  and  industrial  arts,  Baby- 
lonian, 23  ;  Egyptian,  32  ;  Phceni- 
cian,  42 ;  at  Athens,  219 ;  at 
Rome,  435. 

lo'na,  seat  of  the  Celtic  church, 
495. 

lo'nia,  district  of  Asia  Minor,  80. 

lo'nians,  82;  their  migration  to 
Asia  Minor,  95  ;  their  philosophy, 
140 ;  their  revolt  against  Persia, 
144. 

lon'ic  style  of  architecture,    135. 

Ip'sus,  battle  of,  209. 

Iran   (e-rahn'),  plateau  of,  62. 

Ire'ne,  Eastern  empress,  517. 

Iron  crown  of  the  Lombards,  515. 

Ish'tar,  Babylonian  goddess,  26. 

Isoc'rates,  Greek  orator,  214. 

Isolation  as  a  feature  of  Roman 
policy,  301,  306. 

Is'sus,  battle  of,  231. 

Isf/i'mian  games,   133. 

Italian  allies,  309,  355;  attempt  of 
<laius  Gracchus  to  enfranchise 
them,  362 ;  incorporation  by  the 
"Social  war,"  369. 

Italy,  geography,  259-263  ;  early  in- 
habitants, 263-2G6  ;  consolidation 
under  Rome,  299-309  ;  administra- 
tion under  Augustus,  411 ;  a 
prefecture  under  Constantine, 
461  ;  conquered  by  the  Heruli, 
and  by  the  Ostrogoths,  489 ;  re- 
covered by  Justinian,  509 :  con- 
quered by  the  Lombards,  502  ;  by 
Charlemagne,  515. 

lu'dicea  under  Gaius  Gracchus,  362. 

.Tfi'nus,  Roman  deity,  274. 

Ja'son,  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  86. 

Jeru'salem,  destroyed  by  the  Romans, 

427. 

Jews,  44-49,  253. 
.lu'vi.in,  emperor,  465. 
Jude'a  and  its  civilization,  44-49. 
Jir_'iir'thine  war,  364,  365. 
Ju'lian,  emperor,  464. 
Jurists,  Roman,  449,  475. 
Jurors,     xrr    Dicasteries,   Indices. 
Jus  ycn'tium,  403,  474. 
Justin'ian,   Eastern  emperor,  499. 
Ju'venal,  Roman  satirist,  447. 

Kar'nak,  city  of  Egypt.  35. 

it's.  -..ni|uiM-  Babylonia;  23. 
Khu'fu   (Cheops),  Egyptian  kin 

Klnirship.      in      I',:ihyl..iii.-i.      '_' I  ;      in 

!.t.    :;•_'  :    in    .ludcn.    45,    4*5;    in 

M-i:».     .",.-,;     In     1'erslii.     07  ;     in 

llnuiprlc  age,  98;  at  Sparta,  116; 


at  Athens,  120,  121 ;  in  early  Ro- 
man state,   207-269,  276. 
Ko'ran,   Mohammedan  Bible,  505. 

Laco'nia,  district  of  Greece,  79  ;  oc- 
cupied by  the  Dorians,  114. 

La'de,    battle   off,    145. 

Lam'achus,  Athenian  general,  183, 
184. 

La'mian  war.  240. 

Land  at  Rome.  See  Ager  publicus, 
Agrarian  laws. 

Language  and  races,  15. 

Lat'ins,  people  of  Latium,  263  ;  set- 
tlement at  Rome,  272;  war  with 
Rome,  301. 

La'tium  (-shi-um),  263  ;  Roman  con- 
quests in,  283  ;  part  of  the  Roman 
domain,  307. 

Lau'rium,  mines  at,  150. 

Laws,  Babylonian,  24 ;  of  Draco, 
121  ;  of  Solon,  122 ;  of  Clisthenes, 
126.  See  also  Roman  law. 

Lega'ti,  governors  of  imperial  prov- 
inces, 412. 

Legends  as  a  source  of  history,  8 ; 
Greek,  83-86;  Roman,  266-269. 

Legion,  Roman,  310,  311. 

Leo  III.  •  (the  Isaurian),  Eastern 
emperor,  509. 

Leon'idas,  Spartan  king,  153. 

Lep'idus,  M.  ^Emilius,  consul,  revolt 
of,  376. 

Lepidus,  M.  .^milius,  triumvir, 
393,  397 ;  defeated  by  Octavius 
without  a  battle,  309. 

Les'bos,  island  of  the  ^Egean,  oc- 
cupied by  the  Dorians,  95  ;  mem- 
ber of  the  Delian  confederacy, 
167  ;  revolt  against  Athens,  181. 

Leuc'tra,   battle   at,    192. 

Lex  curiata  de  imperio,  277  ;  Canu- 
lela,  293;  Julia,  396;  Plan  tin 
Papiria,  396 ;  matcxlatix.  423. 

Library,  of  Assurbanipal,  54 ;  at 
Pergamum,  250 ;  at  Alexandria, 

IT)."). 

Licin'ian  legislation.  295. 

Lictors,  official  attendants,  287. 

Life,  at  Sparta.  117,  118:  at 
Athens,  219-223 ;  at  Rome,  after 
the  conquests,  251 ;  under  the  em- 
pire, 432-436. 

Literature,  Babylonian,  25 ;  Egyp- 
tian, 37;  Hebrew,  48;  Persian, 
68;  early  Greek,  137-140;  Attic 
period,  205-215;  at  Pergamum, 
250 ;  at  Alexandria,  255 ;  at 
Rome,  after  the  conquests,  350; 
in  the  later  republic,  402;  under 
Augustus,  415 ;  during  the  early 
empire,  440. 

Liv'ia,  wife  of  Augustus.  416. 

I.iv'y.   Konian   historian.    1 1''>. 

Lombards,  kingdom  of.  fin 2 :  en- 
croachment upon  tin-  papacy.  ."  1  1  ; 
defeated  li\  IVnin.  r»1.'{;  conquered 
by  Charlemagne,  515. 


INDEX 


r>4r, 


Long    Walls,    of    Athena,    built     by 

Pericles.    165;    destroyed    by    Ly- 

sander,     186 ;    rebuilt    by    Conon, 

190. 

Lu'can,  Roman  poet,  446. 
Luc'ca,  conference  at,  384. 
Ltt'cr/TN.  sottbMiient  at  Rome,   27.r». 
Lucre'tlus     (-sbT-us),     Roman     poet, 

40o'. ' 

Lucul'lus,  Roman  general,  .".T-.t. 
Lusitfi'nians,  revolt  of  tbe,  341. 
Luxury   at   Rome.   351.  430-432. 
Lyce'um  at  Athens.  2,00. 
Lycia     (lish'I-a),     Roman     province, 

424. 

Lycur'gus,  Spartan   legislator,   11  ~>. 
Lyd'ia,  kingdom"  of  Asia  Minor,  63  : 

conquered  by  Persia,  64. 
Lyric  poetry,  Greek,  138. 
Lysan'der,  Spartan  admiral  and 

statesman.   1<5S.   187. 
Lys'ias,  Greek  orator,  214. 
Lvsim'achus,   general   of   Alexander. 
'239. 

Macedo'nia,  rise  of.  225 ;  relation 
to  the  Greeks,  226;  under  Philip. 
227-230;  under  Alexander,  230- 
2: '.5  ;  relation  to  the  Greek  federa- 
tions, 240-243 ;  first  war  with 
Rome,  333 ;  second  war,  334 ; 
third  war.  336;  reduced  to  a 
province,  337. 

Ma?ce'nas,  friend  of  Augustus.  414. 

Magna  C.iw'cia   (-shl-a),  80.  266. 

Magne'sia   (-shl-a),  battle  of.  33.1. 

Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,   505-507. 

Mam'ertlnes  at  Messana.   317. 

Man'etbo,  Egyptian  historian,  255. 

Manil'ian  law,  379. 

Man'iple,    military    formation,    371. 

Man'lius,  M.,  his  defense  of  the 
Capitol  at  Rome.  300. 

Mantine'a,  walls  razed  by  Sparta. 
190 ;  rebuilt  by  Epaminondas 
193. 

Mar'athon,  battle  of,  146-148. 

Marcel'lus,  governor  of  Sicily,  328. 

Marcoman'ni,  German  tribe,  443. 

Mar'cus  Aure'lius,  emperor,  443. 

Mardo'nius,  Persian  general,  145. 
140. 

Ma'rius,  Gains,  in  Jugurthine  war, 
365;  in  Cimbric  war,  366;  joins 
the  popular  party,  366  ;  In  Social 
war.  'Ml :  driven  from  Rome,  371  ; 
joins  Cinna  in  the  "Marian  mas- 
sacres," 371. 

Marius,    Gains    (adopted   son),    372. 

Mars.   267.   277. 

Massil'ia   (Marseilles),  344. 

Maureta'nia,  Roman  province,  424. 

Maxen'tius  (-shi-us),  rival  of  Con- 
stantine.  4.~>9. 

Maxim'ian,  associate  of  Diocletian, 
456. 

Mayors  of  the  palace,  512. 

Medes,   58 ;   their  empire,   61-63. 


Medu'sn,  slain  by  Perseus,  85. 
Mogalop'olis,  city  in  Arcadia,  193. 
Mr-'ara,  conquered  by  the  Dorians. 

11  i. 

Mem'phls,  city  of  Egypt,  29. 
Menan'der,  Greek  comic  writer,  245. 
Menela'us,    <; m>k    chieftain,    84,    86. 
Me'nes,  king  of  Egypt,  29. 
Merovln'gians,      Frankish      dynasty, 

Mesopota'mia,  or  Tigris-Euphrates 
Valley,  21. 

Messa'na,  town  in  Sicily.  317. 

Messe'ne,  city  of  Messenia.  193. 

Messe'nia.  district  of  Greece,  79; 
occupied  by  the  Dorians,  114  ;  sub- 
dued by  Sparta,  118. 

Metau'rus,   battle  of   the,   328. 

Metel'lus,  Ca'cil'ius,  consul.  ::<;5. 

Met'ics,  resident  foreigners  at 
Athens,  173. 

Mile'tus,  city  of  Ionia,  95 ;  as  a 
center  of  colonization,  109  ;  in  the 
Ionian  revolt,  144 ;  destroved, 
145. 

Mi'lo,  T.  Annius,  opponent  of  Clo- 
dius,  386,  387. 

Milti'ades,  Greek  general,   146.   148. 

Mi'nos,   mythical  king  of  Crete,   85. 

Min'otaur,    Cretan    monster,    85. 

Missions,   papal,  510. 

Mithrida'tes,  king  of  Pontus,  371, 
372. 

Moe'ris,  lake  in  Egypt,  33. 

Mohammed  'and  Mohammedanism, 
505-507. 

Monarchy.     See    Kingship. 

Monasticism  in  the  West.  510. 

Mo'ses,  Hebrew  lawgiver,  45. 

Mum'mius,  Roman  general,  339. 

Mun'da,  battle  of,  387. 

Municipal  system  of  Rome,  308, 
390,  470. 

Muse'um  at  Alexandria,  255. 

Mu'tina,  war  of,   396. 

Myc'ale,   battle  of,    157. 

Myce'na?.  city  of  Argolis,  82  ;  ruins 
at,  89. 

Mycenae'an  (or  Myce'nian),  culture, 
91. 

My'la?,  battle  of,  319. 

My'ron,  Greek  sculptor,  203. 

Mytile'ne,  city  of  Lesbos,  95;  re- 
volt of,  181. 

Na?'vius,  Roman  poet,  351. 

Names,     Roman,     abbreviations     of, 

295. 

Narbonen'sis,   Roman   province,   365. 
Xar'ses,    general    of   Justinian,    501. 
Xaupac'tus.   Peace  of,  243. 
Navy,    Persian.    68 ;    Athenian,    119, 

120;    Roman,    216. 
Nax'os,    island    reduced    by    Cimon, 

163. 
Nebuchadnez'zar     '( Nebuchadrezzar) , 

Babylonian  king,   58. 
Ne'mea,  games  at,  133. 


54G 


INDEX 


Ne'ro,  emperor,  422. 

Ner'va,    emperor,   437. 

New  Carthage,  city  in  Spain,  323. 

Nicse'a,   council  of,   461. 

Nicias  (nlsh'i-as),  Athenian  states- 
man, 181 ;  Peace  of,  182 ;  in 
Sicilian  expedition,  183. 

Nicome'dia,  residence  of  Diocletian, 
456. 

Nile,  river  of  Egypt,  19;  the  v;il- 
ley,  27. 

NIn'e-veh,  capital  of  Assyria,  21, 
51 ;  its  destruction,  63. 

Nip'pur,    city    of    Babylonia,    22. 

Nobility,  at  Athens,  120,  121 ;  at 
Rome,  under  the  republic,  345 ; 
under  the  empire,  400 ;  Romano- 
Germanic,  496.  See  also  Pa- 
tricians, Optimates. 

Nu'ma,   king  of  Rome,   267. 

Numan'tia  (-shl-a),  town  in  Spain, 
341. 

Numid'ia,   kingdom    in   Africa,    339. 

Octa'vius  (Octavia'nus),  nephew 
and  adopted  son  of  Ca?sar,  ap- 
pears at  Rome,  395 ;  joins  the 
senate.  395 ;  in  second  triumvi- 
rate, 396;  at  battle  of  Philippi, 
397  ;  war  with  Antony,  400,  401 ; 
emperor  Augustus,  407-417. 

Odo-a'cer,   king  of  the  Heruli,  489. 

Od'yssey,  the,  96. 

(Ed'ipus.  mythical  king  of  Thebes, 
86,  209. 

fEnoph'yta,  battle  at,  166. 

Olym'pian  games,  131. 

Olym'pus,  Mt.,  77 ;  abode  of  the 
Homeric  gods,  99. 

Olyn'thiac  war,  190. 

O'mar,   caliph,   505. 

Ommt'ads,  Mohammedan  dynasty, 
506. 

OpHma'tes.  aristocratic  party  at 
Rome,  358. 

Or'acle,  at  Dodona,  77,  81 ;  at  Del- 
phi, 78,  130. 

Orchom'enus,  city  of  Boeotia,  78 ; 
seat  of  Mycenaean  culture,  98 ; 
battle  at,  372. 

Ores'tes,  Roman  "patrician,"  488, 
189. 

Or'muzd,   Persian  deity,  69. 

Os'cans,   people  of  Italy,  264. 

Os'tiacism  at  Athens,  127. 

Os'trogoths,   kingdom   of,   489. 

o'tho,  emperor,  426. 

Ov'id,    Roman    poet,    416. 

Painting.    Egyptian,    36;    Assyrian, 

r.s  :  Athenian,  205. 
Pala'op'olls,  city  in  Campania,  301, 

Pal'atine  hill,  settled  by  the  Latins, 

27  L'. 

Pal'la,  Roman  dn-ss.    l.".:.'. 
I'iilmy'ni.    (Irstniciiun    of,   453. 
Panatbente'a,  Greek  festival,  133. 


Pan'theon  at  Rome,  415. 

Papacy,  its  growth,  508-511 ;  alli- 
ance with  the  Franks,  512-514. 

Paphlago'nia,  kingdom  in  Asia 
.Minor,  240. 

Papin'ian,    Roman  jurist,  451. 

Parmen'ides,  Greek  philosopher,  141. 

Parme'nio,  general  of  Alexander, 
235. 

Parnas'sus,   Mt.,  in  Phocis,   78. 

Parr/ia'sius  (-shi-us),  Greek  painter, 
205. 

Par'thenon  at  Athens,   200. 

Par'thia,  kingdom  of  Asia,  in- 
vaded by  Crassus,  386. 

Parties,  at  Athens,  170 ;  at  Rome. 
See  Patricians,  Plebeians,  Op- 
timates, Popularcs. 

Patricians,  Roman,  279  ;  relation  to 
the  plebeians,  288  et  seq.;  to  the 
new  nobility,  345. 

Paul'lus,  Roman  jurist,  452,  475. 

Paullus,  yEmilius,  consul  (father), 
at  the  battle  of  Cannsp,  326. 

Paullus,  JEmilius  (son),  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Pydna,  336. 

Pausa'nias,  Spartan  general,  at  the 
battle  of  Platsea,  156;  frees 
^Egean  cities,  161  ;  his  treachery 
and  death,  162  and  note. 

Pelas'gians,  early  people  of  Greece, 
80. 

Pelop'idas,  Theban  patriot,  191, 
193. 

Peloponne'sian    League,    118. 

Peloponnesian   war,    178-187. 

Peloponne'sus,  79  ;  occupied  by  the 
Dorians,  93. 

Pentap'olis  in  Italy,  part  of  the 
papal  territory,  514. 

PSp'in  (Pippin),  king  of  the  Franks, 
512. 

Perdic'cas,  general  of  Alexander, 
237. 

Per'gamum,  kingdom  of,  240 ;  a 
center  of  Hellenistic  culture, 
248  ;  bequeathed  to  Rome,  343. 

P&r'icles,  Greek  statesman.  his 
political  policy.  164-171;  his  war 
policy,  179;  his  death,  181;  his 
oratory,  213. 

Perke'ci  at  Sparta,  116. 

Persecutions.     See   Christians. 

Persep'olis,  city  of  Persia,  68,  69; 
captured  by  Alexander,  235. 

Per'seus,    king    of    Macedonia,    336. 

Perseus,  slayer  of  Medusa,  85. 

Per'sia  (-shl-a),  ancient  empire,  63- 
71  ;  wars  with  Givece.  143  et  seq.; 
conquered  by  Alexander,  234,  235  ; 
new  monarchy  of  the  Sassanldce, 
452,  485  :  conquered  by  the  Sara- 
cens, ."•<»»;. 

I'lin'lanx.  (Jroek,  176;  Macedonian, 
'I'll  ;  «':irlv  Kornan,  311. 

Phar'nncf's.  '  king  of  Pontus,  de- 
feated by  r.M-sar,  388. 

Phursa'lus,  battle  of,  388. 


INDEX 


547 


Phld'ias,  Greek  sculptor  and  ar- 
chitect, 203. 

I'hi'don,   ruler  of  Argos.  114. 

Phil'ip  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  227- 
230. 

Philip  V.,  bis  alliance  with  Hanni- 
bal, 243,  328  ;  at  war  with  Rome, 
333-336. 

Philip'pi,  battle  of,  397. 

Philip'pics,  of  Demosthenes,  228  ;  of 
Cicero,  396. 

Philoc'rates,    Peace   of,    228,    220. 

Philosophy,  early  Greek,  140,  141  ; 
in  Attic  period,  215-218;  post- 
Aristotelian,  246;  at  Rome,  350, 
448. 

Pho'cis,  district  of  Greece,  78;  in 
second  Sacred  war,  228. 

Phoem'cia  (-shl-a),  and  its  civiliza- 
tion, 41-44. 

Phra'try,  Greek  brotherhood,  103. 

Phryn'i<ehus,    Greek    tragedian,    207. 

Pin'dar,    Greek    lyrist,    158. 

Pirffi'us,  harbor  of  Athens,  150,  160, 
K;:.. 

Pirates,  Illyrian,  322  ;  Cilician,  r.T'.t. 

Pisis'tratus,   tyrant  at  Athens,   124. 

Placid'ia,  ruler  at  Rome,  488. 

Platoe'a,  city  of  Bceotia,  battle  at, 
156 ;  in  Peloponnesian  war,  181, 
190. 

Pla'to.   Greek   philosopher,   217. 

Plau'tus,    Roman    dramatist,    351. 

Plebe'ians  at  Rome,  early  status, 
279 ;  struggle  for  economic 
rights,  288-291  ;  struggle  for 
equal  law,  291-293 ;  admitted  to 
the  consulship,  296. 

Plln'y  the  Elder,  Roman  writer, 
447. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  447. 

Pnyx,  hill  of  Athens,   199. 

Pollen'tia    (-shi-a),    battle    of,    487. 

Polyb'ius,  Greek  historian,  336. 

Polygno'tus,  Greek  painter,  205. 

Pompe'ii  (-yi),  destroyed,  428;  ex- 
cavations at,  430 ;  life  at,  434. 

Pompe'ius,  Gna^us  (Pompey  the 
Great),  joins  Sulla,  372;  defeats 
Lepidus,  376 ;  defeats  Sertorius, 
377 ;  becomes  consul,  378 ;  vic- 
tories in  the  East.  379,  380 ; 
member  of  the  first  triumvirate, 
382;  becomes  sole  consul,  386; 
war  with  Caesar,  388. 

Pompeius,  Sextus,  393  ;  his  fleet  de- 
stroyed by  Octnvius.  399. 

Pon'tifex  Max'imus,  278. 

Pon'tus,  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor, 
369. 

Popula'rcs,  democratic  party  at 
Rome,  358. 

Porsen'na  (Por'sena),  Etruscan 
prince,  269. 

Posei'don  (Neptune),  100;  worship 
on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,'  202. 

Prefects,  magistrates  under  Au- 
gustus, 410. 


Prcs'tor  peregrl'nus,  403. 

1'ni'to'riau  miard,  established  by 
Augustus.  40'.),  410;  stationed  at 
Kom.-  by  TilM-riiis.  li'l;  reorgan- 
ized by  Soptimius  Severus,  450; 
abolished  by  Constant  in.-.  462. 

Praxit  Vies.    (Jivrk    sculptor,    204. 

Prefecture,  a  subject  city,  308 ;  a 
territorial  division  of  the  later 
empire,  461. 

Proco'pius,  Roman  historian,  499. 

Proper'tius  (-shl-us),  Roman  poet, 
416. 

Propylffl'a,  entrance  to  the  Acropolis, 

200. 

Proscriptions,  of  Sulla,  373  ;  of  the 

second   triumvirate,   '.VM . 
Provinces,    Roman,    in    Punic    wars, 

321,    322 ;    after    the    conquests, 

346-348;     under    Augustus,    412; 

under  the  Julian  line,  424  ;  under 

the   Antonines,    445 ;    under    Con- 

stantine,     461  ;     review     of     the 

provincial   system,   471. 
Psammet'i€hus,    Egyptian    king,    31. 
Ptolemies,   kingdom   of  the,   239. 
Ptolemy,    Greek   astronomer,    256. 
Public  land  at  Rome,  289.     Sec  also 

Agrarian  laws. 
Publil'ius     Phi'lo,     first     proconsul, 

302. 

Pu'nic   wars.     See   Carthage, 
Pydna,   battle  of,    336. 
Pyramids,   Egyptian,   30,   35. 
Pyr'rhus,    Greek    general,    l$s    war 

with  Rome,   304-306. 
Pythag'oras,  Greek  philosopher,  141. 

Qua'di,  German  tribe,  443. 
Quaes'tors,   first  elected,   286. 
Quintil'ian,    Roman    writer,   447. 
Quir'inal    hill,    settled    by    the    Sa- 

bines,  273. 
Quiri'nus,  the  deified  Romulus,  277. 

Race  characteristics,  14. 

Radagai'sus,    barbarian    chief,    487. 

Rame'ses  (Ram'ses)  II.,  Egyptian 
king,  31. 

Ram'ncs,  Latin  settlers  at  Rome, 
272. 

Raven'na,  exarchate  of,  501 ;  con- 
quered by  the  Lombards,  513 ; 
conquered  by  Pepin  and  granted 
to  the  Pope,  514. 

Reg'ulus,    Roman   general,    319. 

Religion,  Babylonian,  25  ;  Egyptian, 
33;  Phoenician,  41;  Hebrew,  47; 
Persian,  69 ;  Homeric,  99 ;  an 
element  of  Greek  culture,  130- 
134  ;  early  Roman,  277  ;  after  the 
conquests,  349  ;  decay  during  the 
later  republic,  405;  attempts  at 
reform  by  Augustus,  416.  See 
also  Christianity,  Church. 

Re'mus,  brother  of  Romulus,   267. 

R/iodps,  republic  of,  240 ;  its  cul- 
ture, 250. 


548 


INDEX 


Ric'imer,    the   "king-maker,"    488. 

Roads,   Persian,  t>7  :    Roman,   312. 

Roman  law,  codification  of  the 
XII.  Tables,  292 ;  administration 
in  the  provinces,  348 ;  improve- 
ment under  the  republic,  402, 
403  ;  under  the  empire,  449  ;  codi- 
fied by  Justinian,  502 ;  review 
'of  its  character,  473. 

Romano-Germanic   society,   495. 

Rome,  the  city,  its  traditional 
foundation,  266 ;  its  probable 
origin,  271-275  ;  its  growth  under 
the  later  kings,  282  ;  destroyed  by 
the  Gauls,  300 ;  occupied  by 
Sulla,  370  ;  administration  "under 
Augustus,  410;  sacked  by  the 
Visigoths,  487 ;  pillaged  by  the 
Vandals,  488 ;  seat  of  the  papacy, 
508. 

Rom'ulus,  legendary  founder  of 
Rome,  267. 

Romulus  Augus'tulus,  emperor,  489. 

Roncesval'les,    battle    near,    515. 

Roset'ta  Stone,  the  key  to  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  37. 

Ru'bicon,   crossed  by   Caesar,   388. 

Sabel'lians,   people   of   Italy.    204. 

Sa' bines,    branch   of   the   Sabellians, 
J«;i  ;   union  with  the  Romans,  273. 

Sacred  war,  first,   131;  second,  228. 

Sagwn'tum,  city  of  Spain,  captured 
l.y  IUnnib.il,  324. 

Saint   fcphi'a,   church   of,   499. 

Sa'is,   cTty   of   Egypt,   31. 

Sakka'rah,    village   of   Egypt,    30. 

Sal'amis,  Island  of  Greece,  79 ;  bat- 
tle of,  154. 

Sal'lust,   Roman   historian,  403. 

Salo'na,  seat  of  Diocletian's  palace, 
458. 

Sal'vius  Julia'nus,  Roman  jurist, 
449. 

Sam'nite  wars,   301-304. 

Sa'mos,  island  of  the  .flSgean,  set- 
tled by  the  lonians,  95 ;  ally  of 
Athens,  K57. 

Siippho   (saf'o),  Greek  poetess,   139. 

Saracens,    or   Arabians,    505-507. 

Sardin'ia,  reduced  to  a  province. 
321. 

Sar'dis,  capital  of  Lydia,  captured 
by  Cyrus,  65 ;  burned  by  the 
lonians,  I -I.". 

Sar'gon    I.,    Babylonian   king,    22. 

Sartron  II.,  Assyrian  king,  33,  47. 
:in'id:p.   IVrsian  dynasty,   4.",L'. 

Sa'traps,  of  Assyria,  55;  of  Persia, 
67. 

Saturnl'nus,  tribune  associated  with 
Mai-ins.  :;r,7. 

Saul,    H<>bn>w  king,  45. 

Sa\.)'is.   conquered  by  Charlemagne, 

Schlie'mann,    German    archaeologist, 
Science,  Babylonian,  27 ;   Egyptian, 


35  ;  at  Pergamum,  250 ;  at  Alex- 
andria, 256. 

Scip'io,  Lucius,  defeats  Antiochus 
at  Magnesia,  335. 

Scipio,  P.  Cornelius  (father),  his 
campaigns  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  and 
Spain,  324,  325. 

Scipio,  P.  Cornelius  Africanus  (son), 
the  hero  of  the  second  Punic  war, 
329,  331  ;  at  the  battle  of  Mag- 
nesia, 335. 

Scipio  .Emilia'nus,  the  conqueror  of 
Carthage  and  Numantia,  340,  341. 

Scipio  Nasi'ca,  senatorial  leader 
against  Tiberius  Gracchus,  360. 

Sculpture,  Egyptian,  36;  Assyrian, 
57;  early  Greek,  136;  Attic 
period,  202;  at  Pergamum,  249; 
at  .Rhodes,  250. 

Scyth'ians,   barbarian   tribe,    63,   65. 

Secession  of  the  plebeians,  first, 
289;  second,  292. 

Seja'nus,    adviser   of   Tiberius,    420. 

Seleu'cida?,  kingdom  of  the,  239 ; 
its  civilization,  252. 

Sella'sia   (-shl-a),  battle  of,  242. 

Semit'ic  peoples,  15,  16 ;  in  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  21 ;  in 
Syria,  41. 

Sempro'nius,  Tiberius,  consul,  in 
second  Punic  war,  324,  325. 

Senate,  Roman,  under  the  kings, 
277  ;  in  early  republic,  287  ;  grow- 
ing power  after  the  conquests. 
345  ;  weakened  by  Gaius  Gracchus, 
361  ;  restored  after  his  death, 
364  ;  under  Sulla,  374 ;  under 
Caesar,  390;  under  Augustus,  408. 

Sen'eca,  Roman  philosopher,  422, 
446. 

Sennach'erib,  Assyrian  king,   53. 

Sentl'num,  battle  of,  303. 

Sep'tuagint,  Greek  Version  of  the 
Jewish  scriptures,  256. 

Serto'rius,  Q.,  colleague  of  Carbo, 
372  ;  his  revolution  in  Spain,  377. 

Servile   war   in    Sicily,   341. 

Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  king  of  Rome,  268. 

Se'ti   I.,  Egyptian  king,  31. 

Seve'rus,    Alexander,    emperor,    451. 

Severus,   Septimius,   450. 

Shalmane'ser   I.,   Assyrian  king,   51. 

Shalmaneser  II.,  52. 

Sicily,  island,  a  part  of  Hellas,  80; 
seat  of  Greek  colonies,  113;  Car- 
thaginian attack  upon,  157: 
Athenian  expedition  to,  183,  184; 
supremacy  of  Syracuse  in,  194, 
1 '.»:,;  campaign  of  Pyrrhus  In, 
305  ;  seat  of  the  first  Punic  war, 
317 ;  the  first  Roman  province, 
321. 

Slcyon      (sTsh'I-on),     city     of     the 

IVlopolllH'SllS,      107. 

Si'don,  city  of  Phoenicia,  42. 

Simon'idf's,   Gn»«'k   lyric  poet,  158. 
Sip'par.  city  of  Uiib.vlonin,  22. 
Slavery,   Jewish,  47  ;   Assyrian,  56  ; 


INDEX 


549 


Greek,  172-220;  Roman,  341,  355, 
430. 

Social  customs,  see  Life. 

Social  war,  Athenian,  228;  Roman, 
367. 

Soc'rates,  Greek  philosopher,  216. 

Solssons  (swahs-so>O,  battle  of, 
493. 

Sol'omon,   Hebrew  king,  46. 

So'lon,  Athenian  lawgiver,   122. 

Sophists    at    Athens,    216. 

Soph/odes,   Greek   tragedian,    208. 

Spain.  Carthaginian  power  in.  :'._:'•: 
the  two  Ivoin.in  provinces,  331 ;  re- 
volt of  the  Celtiberians  and  Lu- 
sitanians,  340;  settled  by  the 
Suevi  and  Visigoths.  I'.fJ :  con- 
quered by  the  Saracens,  506 ;  in- 
vaded by  Charlemagne,  515. 

Spar'ta,  city  of  Laconia.  founded 
by  the  Dorians,  114;  classes  of 
the  people,  115 ;  its  government, 
116;  education  and  discipline. 
117;  head  of  the  Peloponnesinn 
League,  118;  its  position  in 
Greece,  119;  hostility  to  Athens, 
164 ;  in  Peloponnesian  war,  178- 
186 ;  supremacy  in  Greece,  187- 
190;  conflict  with  the  Achaean 
league,  241. 

Spar'tacus,  Roman  gladiator,  377. 

Sphacte'ria,  island,  captured  by 
Cleon,  182. 

Stesich'orus,   Greek  lyric  poet,   139. 

Stil'icho,  Vandal  general  in  the 
service  of  Honorius,  487. 

Sto'ic  philosophy,  246 ;  at  Rome, 
350,  448,  475. 

Sto'la,  Roman  dress,  432. 

Stra-te'f/i,.  Athenian  generals,  127, 
174,  175. 

Sueto'nius,   Roman   biographer,   447. 

Sue'vi,    kingdom   of,   492. 

Suffragium,  294. 

Sul'la,  L.  Cornelius,  Roman  general 
and  statesman,  in  Social  war, 
368 ;  given  command  against 
Mithridates,  369 ;  marched  upon 
Rome,  370 ;  in  the  first  Mithri- 
datic  war,  371 ;  war  with  the 
Marian  party,  372 ;  his  proscrip- 
tions, 373 ;  his  constitution,  373, 
374. 

Sulpician    (sul-pish'i-an)    laws,   370. 

Sy-a'grius,  Roman  governor  of 
Gaul,  488,  493. 

Sympo'sium,   Greek,  223. 

Syr'acuse,  Dorian  colony  in  Sicily, 
resists  the  Carthaginians,  in  the 
Persian  wars,  157,  158;  besieged 
by  the  Athenians  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war,  183,  184 ;  its  su- 
premacy in  western  Hellas,  194. 
195  ;  in  the  first  Punic  war,  317, 
318 ;  in  the  second  Punic  war, 
328 ;  joined  to  the  province  of 
Sicily,  331. 

Syr'ia,    early    meeting    ground    be- 


tween the  Babylonians  and  Egyp- 
tians. L'o,  L'l  ;  occupied  by  the 
Pnoenicians  and  Hebrews,  41 ; 
conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  53, 
54  ;  by  the  Persians,  65  ;  by  Alex- 
ander, 235 ;  kingdom  of  the  Se- 
leucida?,  239 ;  war  with  Rome, 
335 ;  reduced  to  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, 379. 

Tac'itus,  emperor,  453. 

Tacitus,  Roman  historian,  447. 

Tan'agra,  battle  of,   166. 

Ta'nis,  city  of  Egypt,  30,  31. 

Taren'tum,  Greek  colony  in  Italy, 
war  with  Rome,  304  ;  surrendered 
to  Hannibal,  327 ;  recaptured  by 
Rome,  328. 

Tar'quins,  kings  of  Rome,   268. 

Taxes,  Roman,  under  the  republic, 
348,  358;  under  Caesar,  390; 
under  Augustus,  413. 

Tel-el-Amarna  tablets,  31  note. 

Tel'lo,  city  of  Babylonia,  22. 

Tem'pe,  vale  in  Thessaly,  77  ;  occu- 
pied by  Xerxes,  153. 

Temples,  Babylonian,  26 ;  Egyp- 
tian, 35;  Greek,  134,  200;  Ro- 
man, 282,  350,  404,  414. 

Ten   Thousand,    march   of   the.    188. 

Ter'ence.    Roman    dramatist,    351. 

Terentil'ius  Harsa,   tribune,  291. 

Teu'toberg  Forest,  battle  at.  413. 

Teu'tones.     See  Cimbric  war. 

Tha'les,   Greek  pJ|jiiFOpher,    140. 

Thap'sus.   battle ^r^389. 

Tha'sos.  island  of  the  ^Egean,  re- 
volt of,  163. 

Theater,    Greek,    205 ;    Roman,    433. 

Thebes,  city  of  Boeotia,  78 ;  seized 
by  Sparta,  190;  liberated  by 
Pelopidas,  191 ;  supremacy  of, 
192 ;  decline,  193 ;  destroyed  by 
Alexander,  231. 

Thebes,  city  of  Egypt,  30. 

Themis'tocles.  Greek  statesman,  his 
naval  programme,  149 ;  at  the 
Congress  of  Corinth,  150;  at  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  154 ;  rebuilds 
Athens,  160 ;  character  and  exile, 
161 

Theoc'ritus,  Greek  pastoral  poet, 
225. 

Theodo'ra,  wife  of  Justinian,  449. 

The'odore  of  Tarsus,  495. 

Theod'oric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
489. 

Theodo'sius  (-shl-us)  I.,  emperor, 
465. 

Thermop'yla?,  battle  of,  153,   154. 

These'um.    temple    at    Athens,    199. 

The'sefis.  mythical  king  of  Athens, 
85,  120. 

Thesmoth'etce  at  Athens,  121. 

Thes'saly,  district  of  Greece,  77 ; 
early  seat  of  the  Dorians,  93. 

The'tcs  at  Athens,  123. 

Thirty  Tyrants  at  Athens,  187. 


550 


INDEX 


Thirty  Years'  Truce,  171. 

Thoth'mes   III.,    Egyptian   king,   31. 

Thrace,   Roman  province,  424. 

Thrasybu'lus,  Athenian  patriot,  187. 

Thucyd'ides,  Greek  historian,  212. 

Tibe'rius,  emperor,  420. 

Tibul'lus,    Roman    poet,    416. 

Tig'lath-Pile'ser  I.,  Assyrian  king, 
52. 

Tiglath-Pileser  III.,  53. 

Ti'gris-Euphra'tes  valley,  21. 

Timo'leon  the  Liberator,  195. 

Ti'ryns,  city  of  Argolis,  82;  citadel 
of,  89. 

Tissapher'nes,  Persian  governor  of 
Asia  Minor,  189. 

Tit'v-ea,  Sabine  settlers  at  Rome, 
273. 

Ti'tus,  emperor,  427. 

To'ga,  Roman  dress,  432. 

Tours    (toor),   battle  of,   506. 

Tragedy,  206-210. 

Tra'jan,   emperor,   437. 

Trasume'nus,    Lake,   battle   of,    326. 

Treason,  Roman  law  under  Tiberius, 
423. 

Tribes,  in  the  Greek  city  state,  103  ; 
the  four  Ionian,  120,  123  :  the  ten 
Attic,  of  Clisthenes  (local),  126: 
the  Italic,  261  :  in  the  Roman 
city  state,  276;  the  Servian 
(local),  280;  relation  to  the 
ager  Romanus,  307. 

Tribo'nian,  Roman  jurist,  502. 

Tri'bunes  of  the  people,  290,  374, 
378. 

Trit'tys,  Attic  county,   126. 

Trium'virate,  first,  382;  second, 
396. 

Tro'jan  war,  86. 

Troy,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  86;  ex- 
cavations at,  88-100. 

Tul'lus  Hostil'ius,  king  of  Rome, 
268. 

Twelve  Tables,  Roman  code,  292. 

Tyrants  in  Greece,  106. 

Tyre,  city  of  PluBnicia,  42  ;  besieged 
by  Alexander,  231. 

Tyrtae'us,   Greek   lyric   poet,   138. 

TTfilns.  Arian  Christian,  apostle  of 

the  Goths,  485. 
TJl'pian,    Roman   jurist,   475. 
Um'brians,   people   of   Italy,   265. 


Ur,   city  of  Babylonia,  22,  45. 
U'tica,  city  of  Africa,  o40. 

Vadimo'nis,   Lake,   battle  of,  302. 

Va'lens,  emperor,  465. 

Valentin'ian,    emperor,   465. 

Valerip-Horatian   laws,   293. 

Vale'rius  Poplic'ola,  laws  of,  28o. 

Van'dals,  German  tribe,  settled  in 
Africa,  488 ;  conquered  by  Jus- 
tinian, 499,  500. 

Vaphl'o  cups,  90,  91. 

Var'ro,  Teren'tius,  consul,  326. 

Va'rus,   Roman  general,   413. 

Ve'ii  (-yl),  city  of  Etruria,  siege  of, 
300. 

Vercel'lae,   battle  of,   366. 

Vercinget'orix,  Gallic  chief,  386. 

Ver'gil,  Roman  poet,  415. 

Ver'res,  impeachment  of,  382. 

Vespa'sian   (-zhi-an),  emperor,  426. 

Vestal   virgins,   278. 

Vesu'vius,  Mt.,  eruption  of,  428. 

Village  community,   German,  484. 

Vis'igoths,  invasion  under  Alaric, 
486 ;  kingdom  in  Spain,  492. 

Vitel'lius,   emperor,  427. 

Vol'scians,  Italic  tribe,  263 ;  wars 
with  Rome,  299,  300. 

Walls,  at  Athens,  of  Themistocles, 
160 ;  of  Pericles,  165 ;  at  Rome, 
of  Servius,  283 ;  of  Aurelian, 
453.  See  also  Long  Walls. 

Women  in  Homeric  times,  100 ;  in 
time  of  Pericles,  321. 

Writing,  Babylonian,  25 ;  Egyptian, 
37 ;  Phoenician,  43,  44. 

Xanthip'pus  (zan-),  Spartan  gen- 
eral, 319. 

Xenoph'anes  (ze-)  Greek  philoso- 
pher. 141. 

Xen'ophon  (zen'-),  Greek  historian, 
189,  213. 

Xerxes  (zerk'sez),  Persian  king,  in- 
vasions of  Greece,  151-155. 

Za'ma,   battle   of,    331. 

Ze'la.  battle  of,  388. 

Ze'no,  Greek  philosopher,  246. 

Zeno'bia,  queen  of  Palmyra,   453. 

Xnis  (Jupiter),  00. 

Zeux'is,    Greek   painter.    205. 

Zoro-as'ter,  Persian  reformer,  69. 


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